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GERMANiCUs, fallier of the Gaius Caesar who is known to history as Caligula, the sola os Drusus and Antonia the Youngerwas eventuatly adopted by Tiberius, his paternat unese. Aster servigas quaestor sor sive years, while still legally under age, he became Consul, without holding the usual intermediate offices, and at Augustus's death the Senate appo ted his to command the forces in Germany. Though the legions there were unanimousty opposedio Tiberius's succession and would have acclaimed Germanicus Emperor, he showed a remarkable example of filial respect and personat integrity by diverting their attention frona this project: helook the offensive hi Germany, and won a triumph. As Consul lectsor the second time he was hurried to the Fast, where the militarysituation had grown critical, be re being able to take ossice. There he deseated the Κing of Armenia, and reduced Cappadocia to provinciat status, but succumbed to a protracted ill ess at Antioch, be gonly thirty-sour years old when he died. Because of the dark stainswhicli covered his body, and the seam on his lips, polson was sus-
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pected; significantly, also, they found the heari intact among theashes after cremation - a beari steeped in polson is supposedly proos against fire. 2. Is we may accepi the common verssici, Tiberius crastily arranged Germanicus's death with the advice and assistance of Gnaeus Piso.
Piso had been appotated to govern Syria and there, deciding that hemust mahe an enemy either of Germanicus or of Tiberius, took every sopportunity to proVoke Germanicus, even when on his sichbed, by the meanest acts and speeches; binariour for whicli the Senate condemned him to death on his return to Rome, after he had narrowlyescaped a popular lynching.
universat respect and assection. Only his legs were somewhat unde-veloped, but he strengthened them by assiduous exercise on horsebach after meais. He osten fought and Hiled an enemy in hand-toinandcombat: and did not cease to plead causes in the Law Couris eVenwhen he had gained a triumph. Some of his Greek comedies are ienant, besides other literary works. At home or abroad he a Us bellaved modestly, would dispense with lictors when visiting any freeor allied town, and offered sacrifices at whatever tombs of famous men he came across. On deciding to bury under one mound ali thescattered bones of Varus's fallen legionaries, he led the search par himself and took an active part in the collection. Towards Jhis detrac- tors Germanicus silowed such tolerance and leniency, regardiess of their identity or motives, that he would not even break with Piso
who was cancelsing his orders and plaguing his subordinates) untillie found that spelis and potions were being used against hi m. Andthen he did no more than renounce his friendship by ultering the
traditionat formula, and leave testamentary instructions for his se lyto take vengeance on Piso is anything should happen to himself4. Such virtuous conduci brought Germanicus ricli rewarL. Hewas so deeply respected and loved by ali his acquaintances that Augustus - I need hardly mention his other relatives - wondered fora long time whether to mahe him his successor, but at last ordered Tiberius to adopi him. Germanicus, the records show, had won such
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mourning in Parthia. 6. While Rome was stili stunned by the first news of his illaess. . and watting for further busettas, a rumour that he had recoveredwent the rounds one evening after dark, and sent peopte rvshing totile Capitol with torches and sacrificiat victiss. So eager were theyto register their vows that the Temple gales were almost torn do .
Tiberius was awahened by the joyses chant:
When the news of his death finalty brohe, net ther edicis nor officiat expressions of sympathy could console the commons; mourning continued throughout the festat days of December. The bittern s of their loss was aggravated by the horrors whicli followed: for everyone belleved, and with good reason, that morat respect sor Ge
manicus had alone hept Tiberius froni displaying the crueity of his wicked heart. T. Germanicus married Agrippina, daughter of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, who bore him nine children. Two di ed in infancy, and athird, an extremely likeable boy. during early childhood. Livia
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THE T ELVE CAESAR Sdedicated a statue of him, dressed as a cupid, to Capitoline Venus; Augustus hept a replica in liis hedroom and used to klas it fondlywhenever he entered. The other ch1ldren - three giris, Agrippina, Drusilla, and Livilla, boria in successive years; and three boys, Nero, Drusus, and Gaius, afte ards Caligula Caesar - furvived their fallier: but Tiberius later brought charges against Nero and DruSUS, Whomhe persuaded the Senate to eXecute as public ene es. 8. Gaius Caligula was bom on 3Ι August, ΙΣ Α.D. , during the
consulfhip shared by his fallier Mili Gaius Fonteius Capito. His birthplace is disputed. According to Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus, hewas born at Tios: but, according to Pliny the Younger, Dear Treves, in the village of Ambitaruium, just above the junction of the Moselle and the Rhine. Pliny supporis his vlew by mentioning certain localallars inscribed 'IN HONOUR op AGRIPPINA'S PUERPERIUM' i.e.child-bearing), also a verse, which went the round s at Caligula's accession and suggesis that he was bona in the winter quarters of the legionS:
Born in a barracks, Reared in the aris of war: A noble nativityFor a Roman Emperori
The Gazette, however, gives his birthplace as Antium: and myreSearches convince me that this is correct. Pliny shows that Gaetulicus
tried to flatior the proud young monarch by pretending that he cameseom Tivoli, a city sacred to Hercules: and that he hed with greater
confidence because Germanicus did have a son nam ed Gaius Caesar bom there, whose sadly premature death I have abeady mentioned. Nevertheless, Pliny is himself mistaken since Augustus's biographersagree that Germanicus's first visit to Gaul took place after he had been consul, by whicli time Caligula was atready bom. Moreover, the inscriptions on the altars do not prove Pliny's possit, since Agrippinabore Germanicus two daughters in Gaul, and any confinement is a puerperium, regardiess of the child's sex - giris were then stili capedpuerae as Often as puellae, and boys puelli as osten as pueri. Finalty, Iliave found a letter whicli Augustus wrote a few monilis besere hedied, to his grand-daughter Agrippina: the Gaius mentioned in it must have been Caligula because no other child of that name was
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Talarius and Asillius to bring your son Gaius to you on the eighteenthos May, is the gods wis. I am also sen ing with him one of my flaves, a doctor who, as I have told Germanicus in a letter, need not bereturned to me is he proves of use to you. Goodbye, my dear Agrippinal Keep weli on the way bach to your Germanicus.' Clearly, Caligula could not have been born in a comtry to which he was firsttaken froni Rome at the age of nearly twol These delasis also weaheno confidence in that anonymous verse about his birth in a barracks. So we are, Ι thinh, reduced to accepting the only other authority, namely the Gazette, especialty since Gaius Caligula preserred Antium to any other city, and trealed ii as his native place; he even planned, they say, to transfer the seat os Imperial govemment there, when hewearied of Rome. 9. He won his sumame, Caligula 'Bootlla') frona an army johe, because he grew up among the troops and wore the miniature uniform os a private soldier, including the caliga, or haliaboot. An undeniabie proos of the hold on their affections whicli this early experience of camp-lise gave him is that when they rioted at the news of Augustus's death and were ready for any madness, the mere si glitos litti e Gaius calmed them do . As soon as they realized that he was being removed to a neighbouring city to protect him stom their Violence, they were overcome by contrition: some of them sellaed and stopped his carriage, pleading to be spared this disgrace. To. Gaius also accompanted Germanicus to Syria. On his return helived with his mollier and nexi, after si e had been exiled, with his grea grandinother Licia Augusta, whose funerat oration he deliveredfrom the Rostra though he had not yet come of age. He then lived with his grandinother Antonia untii Tiberius summoned him to
Capri, at the age of nineleen. He assumed his manly gown and shaved his frst beard as soon as he arrived there: but this was a most informat occasion, compared with latis brothers' coming-oLage celebrations. The courtiers tried every trich to force him into making complainis against Tiberius; always, however, Without succeSS. He not onlyseiled to fhow any interest in the murder of his relatives, but affected an amaring indisserence to his own ill-treatinent, bellaving so obsequiousty to liis adoptive grandfather and to the entire household, stat sonaeone sald of him, very neatly: 'Never was there a better flave, or
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in Wig and robe, abandoned himself nightly to the plea sures of seasting and scandalous living. Tiberius was ready enough to indulgea passion whicli Caligula had for theatricas dancing and singing, onthe ground that it might have a civiliging influence on him. With
Ι2. Caligula presently married Junia Claudissa, daughter of the distinguisbed senator Marcus Silanus: after which he was first appotnted Augur, in place of his brother Drusus, and then promotedio the Pontificate, in compliment to his dutifes binariour and exemplary lisse. This encouraged him in the liope of becoming Tiberius's successor, because Sejanus's downs ali had reduced the Court to ashadow of iis former self - and when Junia died in childbirili, heseduced Ennia Naevia, wise of Macro, the Guards Commander; notonly swearing to marry her is he became Emperor, but putiing the oath in writing. Ennia helped him to win Macro's suppori, whicli Washow he found no tro te in polsoning Tiberius. Apparently he issuedorders for the Imperiat ring to be removed while Tiberius was stillbrealing, and when he would not let it go. had him smothered witha pillow. According to one account he throtiled Tiberius with hisown hands, and when a seeedman cri ed out in protest at this wicheddeed, cruci sed him at once. All this may be true; some writers reportthat Caligula later confessed at least to intended parricide. He would osten boast, that is to say, of havring carried a dagger into Tiberius'sbedroom with the virtuous intention os avenging this mollier and brothers; but, according to his own account, found Tiberius afleep
never dared question him, or take any action in the matter. 13. Caligula's accession seemed to the Roman people - one mightalmost say, to the whole world- like a dream come true. The memoryos Germanicus and compassion for a fami ly that had been practicallywiped Out by successive murders, made most provincials and soldiers,
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many of whom had known him as a child, and the entire populationos Rome as well, show extravagant joy that he was now Emperor. When he escorted Tiberi 's catasatque froni Misenum to Rome hewas, of coui se, dressed in mourning, but a dense crowd greeted i muproariousty with altars, sacrifices, torches, and such endearmenis as star', 'chichen', 'baby', and 'pet'. 14. On his arrival in the City the Senate sand a mob os commoners who had forced their way into the House) immediately and unani- mousty conferred absolute power upon him. They set asi de Tiberius'swill - whicli made his other grandson, then stili a child, jomt-heirwith Caligula - and so splendid were the celebrations that Ι6o,o victims were publicly sacrificed during the nexi three monilis, or
A sew days later Caligula visited the prison istands olf Campania,
nity of demonstrating a generat concem for his wel fare was everdisregarded. When he seli ill, anxious crowds besieged the Palace alinight. Some swore that they would figlit as gladiators is the goti allowed him to recoVer; others even carried placards volunteering todie instead of him. To the great love in wluch he was held by his ownpeople, foreigners added their own tribute os devotion. Artabanus, Ling of the Parthians, made unsolicited overtures of friendship to Caligula, attended a conserence with the Governo generat of Syria and, be re returning across the river Euphrates, pald homage to the Roman Fagies and standards, and to the statues of the Caesars. I s. Caligula strengthened his popularity by every possibi e means. He deli vered a funerat speech in honour of Tiberius to a vast crowd, weeping profusely ali the while: and gave bim a magnificent buriat. But as soon as this was over he salied sor Pandataria and the Pontian Isiands to fetch bach the remaliis of lus mollier and his brother Nero: and during rough weather, too, in proos os devotion. He approached the ashes with the ulmost revererice and transferred them to the urias with his own hands. Equatly dramatic was his gesture of raising astandard on the po op of the bireme which brought the urns to Ostia, and thence up the Tiber to Rome. He had arranged that the most distinguished knighis auassabie should carry them to the Mausoleum, ab ut noon, when the sirceis Gere at their busi est: also appotiating an annuat day of remembrance, marked by Circus games, at whicli Agrippina's image would be paraded in a covered carri age. He
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honoured his Ather's memory by renam g the monti, of September Germanicus'; and sponsored a senatoris decree which awarded his grandmother Antonia, at a blow, ast the honours won by Livia Augusta in her entire lisetime. As fellow-Consul he cliose his uncte Claudius, who had hitherio been a mere knight: and adopted youngTiberius when he came of age, giving him the officiat titie of 'Youth
The names of Caligula's sisters were now included in the officialoath whicli everyone had to tine, and whicli ran: . . . I Will not
the Emperor Gaius and his sistersi' - and in the Consular motions, assollows: 'Good fortune attend the Emperor Gaius and his sistersi' A similar bid for popularity was to recas ali exiles, and dismiss allcriminal charges WhatsoeVer that had been pending since the time os Tiberius. The batches of writim evidence in his mother's and brothers' cases mere brought to the Forum at his orders, and burned, to set at rest the mlads of such Minesses and informers as had testifedagainst them; but first he swore besore Heaven that he had netther read nor abstracted a single document. He also refused to examine a repori supposed j concerning his own sasely, on the ground that nobody could have any reason to hate him, and diat he theres ore hadno time to peruse idie memoranda of this fort.16. Caligula drove the spintrian perveris Dom the City, and could with difficulty be restresned from dro ing the lol. He gave per S-sion for the works of Titus Labienus, Cremutius Cordus, and Cassius
Severus, which had been banned by order of the Senate, to be routedout and republished - mining his destre known that posterity shouldbe in fuli possession os ali historical facis: also, he revised Augustus 'spractice, discontinued by Tiberius, of publishing an Imperial budget: invested the magistrates With fus authority, not requiring them toapply for his confirmation offentences; and scrupulousty sca ed the
those guilty of tesser misbeliariour - he merely omitted their names Dom the hst which he read ovi. Caligula's creation os a fifth judicialdivision aided jurors to keep abreast of their work: liis reviving of the electorat system was designed to restore popular controi OVer themagistracy. He honoured every one of the bequesis in Tiberius's will, though this had been set aside by the Senate, and in that of his
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abolished the Italian half-pe cent auction tax; and paid compensationto a great many people whose houses had been damaged by sire. Anyking whom he restored to the throne was awarded the taxes that had accumulated since his deposition - Antiochus of Commagene, sorexample, got a refund of a mission gold pieces Dom the Public Trea-sury. To fhow his interest in public morali he marded 8,ooo gold
among them a goiden shield, carried once a year to the Capitol by the Colleges of Priesis marcising in procession, and followed by the Senate, while the children of the aristocracy chanted an anthem inpresse of his virtues. By a Senatoris decree the festius os Parilia, whicli commemoraled the birili os Rome and had always taken placeat the Spring EquinoX, was transferred to the day of his accession, asthough Rome had now been born again. 17. Caligula held four consul ships: the earliest for two monilis,from I July: the nexi for the whole monili of January: the third forthe frst thirteen days of January: and the fourth for the first seven. oesy the last two were in sequence.* He assumed his third consulfhipwithout a colleague. Some historians describe this as a higbaandedbreata os precedent: but uni airly, because he was then quartered at Lyons, where the news that his fellow Consu elect had died in Rome just be re tiae New Year, had not reached him in time. He twice presented every member of the commons with three gold pieces: and twice invited ali the senators and knights, with their wives and children, to an extravagant binquet. At the sest of these banqueis he
also added to the gaiety of Rome by extending the customary fourdays of the Saturnalia, which begri on 17 December, with a fifth, known as Youth Day'. 18. Caligula held severat gladiatoris contesta, sonae in Statilius Taurus's amphitheatre δ and others in the Enclosure: diversi'ingiliem with prige-fighis belween the best boxers of Africa and Campania, and occasionalty allowing magistrates or frienes to preside atthese instead of doing so himself. Again, he staged a great number of
I. See Tiberius II. a. An error. He was Consul in the years 37, 39, 4o and 4I A.D. 3. See Augustus 29
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different theatrical shows in various bulldings - somelimes at night, with the whole City illuminated - and would scalter uouchers among the audience entilling them to est soris of gilis, over and above thebasket of od which was everyone's due. At one banquet, noti ing
were celebrated in the Circus and, between races, Caligula introduced panthe baising and the Trojan war dance. For certain special Games, when si the charioteers were men os senatoris rank, he had the Circus decorated in red and green. Once, while he was inspecting the Circus equipment, Dom the Gelotian House Which overtooks it, agroup of peopte standing in the nea by balconies called out: 'What about a day's racing, Caesar ' So, on the spur of the moment, he gave immediate orders for games to be held. 19. One of this spectacles was on such a fantastic scale that nothinglle it had ever been seen bes ore. He collected ali avsit able merchantships and anchored them in two lines, close together, the whole wayfrom Baiae to the mole at Puteoli, a distance of a litile more than three
trotted bach and fortit for two consecutive days. On the first day hewore Oataleas Crown, sword, buckler, and cloth-oLgold cloia, and rode a gaily caparisoned charger. On the second, he appeared in charioteer's costume driving a leam of two famous horses, with a boynamed Dareus, one of his Parthian hostages, triumphantly displayed in the cis beside him: belliud came the entire Guards Division, and a group of his friends mounted in Gallic curricles. Caligula is, of course, generalty supposed to have bulli the bridge as an improve ment on Xerxes's famous feat os bridging the much narrower Helles- poni. Others belleve that he planned this liuge ingi neering feat toterrisy the Germans and Britons, on whom he had his eye. But mygrandfather used to teli me as a boy that, according to Some Courtiers in Caligula's confidence, the sole reason for the bridge was this: when Tiberius could not decide whom to appotat as his successor, and inclined towards his grandson and namesake, Thrasyllus the astro