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creative power os God.' Whateuer clangers were involved in the unity os matter, Bacon met by a bold dental of suci, uni ty. ' Divide et impera.' he said in effect ; matter, thus Spiit up into sections, is no longer to be seared. Looking at Vacon 's theory by the light Os Subsequent centuries, it is not difficult to see that iis value lay in iis solventand destructive power. His aim from begini ing to end of
Jays of Duns Scotus and william of Ockham . and it was debated by Alberi and by Aquinas with the far larger an l
CXi Stence Os universals tu ne as Clearly as Aristolle haddone. They were clear that universals h ad no existen ceeXcept in the mind. Non est universale nisi dum intelligitur' Alberi. I cI. lib. V. tract. Ui. cap. 7). Una et Cadem I Athara quae singularis erat et individuattv per materiam in Singularibus hominibus eicitur 9OStea universali S per actionem intellectus depurantis illam a conditionibus quae Sunt hic et nunc' Aquinas, Tractatus primus de universalibus). Never-thel ess, both of them test a place sor the uni Vel Sal anu rern,
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INTRODUCTION. Portrayed, but aS radiations centred in the primat sorm, them ind of God.
Turning to Bacon, who discusses the question Os universalsat considerable tength and with eX treme independe iace, wOfind the fame tenden cy to emancipate himself hom bondageto wOrd S, Ontiti OS, and Verbal discusSion S, and to dig clown to a solandation os solid fac t. One individual, he saysy, is of more account than ali the universals in the worid. A universat is nothing but the similari ty os severat individuals : convenientia plurium individuorum.' Two things,' he goeS on to Say, are need sui sor the individua l. The first is absolute: itis that whicli constitutos his CXisten Ce, aS when we SAX, This man is made of sotii and bocly. The second is that in which he resembles an other man, and not RI4 ASS Ora pig. This is his universat. But the absolute nature of an individuat is os far more importance than his related nature.
It is fiYed and absolute by iis eis. Thus the singular is of more account nobiliss) than iis universat. Experierace leadsus to this Conclusion, and So also cloes theology. God has not creat ed the worid for the sal e of the universat man, butfor the salie os individual persons.' In dividuum est natura absoluta et fi Xa habens esse per se ; et uni Uersale non est ni Si convenientia individui respectu alterius.' In Some PaSSageS Bacon appears to go much surther in the direction os nominalis in than Alberi and Aquinas. ThepreUalent View,' he rem artis, is that universals eXist only in the mind. Vet two stones Would be like One another, eUenthough there stio ut d be no mirad to perceive them. But it is precisely this likeness of the two stones that constitutes their universat' Commian. Natur.' Pari II. Dist. ii. ch. IO). Closely allied with the controversy as to uni UerSRlS WAS thequestion os Individuation. Are things individuali ged by sortia or by matter Θ Alberi and Aquinas took the lalter View,
Bonaventura the former. In dividuorum multitudo, ' says
Alberi Do Copto, tract. iii. c. 8) fit omnis per divisionem
materiae. Formae quae sunt receptibiles in materia indivi-
λ On the question of Universals, and also on that os Individuation, cf. the extracts 1 rom the Communia Naturalium gi ven by I mile CharieS, PP. 383-386.
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duantur per materiam.' Cf. Aquinas, Summa Theol. i. quaeSt. iii. cert. 2.) Aquinas was obliged, howevor, to add that this materia must be signata ': must be quanti fiecl. Signatio ejus est eSSe sub Certis signationibus quae faciunt esse hic et nunc. 'This addition went sar to neutra lige the Thomist Vie in OfIndividuation ; sor as his opponents at once rejoined, ' What determines quantity is not forna Θ 'In opposition to Aquinas, Bonaventura maintained that
Species est totum esse individui.' Substance consisting of the Union os matter and forna, matter was unis orna in ali: thesorin was that whicli distinguished, individuali Zed Bacon Commian. Natur.' Pt. II. Dist. ii. Ch. 9), in oppoSitionto ei ther View, maintained that the question was mean in leSSand stolisti. Ali substances, whether universal Or Singular, haVe their own constitutive principies. Soul and body mal eman. This foui and this bocly mal e this man. I ii the intention and procedure of nature, this man ' is prior to man '; man ' comes in as something subsidiary, extra e SSOntiam HUS, Similis accidenti,' as the means os comparison with other individuat s. There is no more reason sor inquiring What causes individuation than sor inquiring what causeS uni VerSali ty. There iS no anSwer to such a question, eXcept that the Creator mal OS OUerything aS itS nature requires. Individuat matterand form is made in one way: specific or generi C matter Andi orna is made in another. Stultitia magna est in hujusmodi quaestione quam faciunt de individuatione. 'III. BACON'S SCRIPTUM PRINCIPALE. 'The sorego ing rem artis, whicli it would bo easy, but not, in this place, justi fiatile to prolong, will illustra te Bacon 'S position
laborious stud y of the realities of lis , whether in nature or in man, had taught to distinguisti things frona wor is : solid facts frona Subile figments. He was not alone in this. Alberi and Aquinas were solid thini ers like himself Less versed in natural Science than Lacon, they had more than he to do
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And is theirs was tess positive. less Dee frona metaphysicalfigments, it is only that the complications os human naturowere less adapted for positive treat ment than the physicalphenomena to whicli Bacon devoted so large a stiare os his
But in Contrast with these three great Schoolmen stand the weaVers of word-syStems, like Alexander of Hales, Henry os Glient, and Duns Scotus, wasting their own and other men 'Stime and energy in defining, clivi ling. and refining with infinite
What avail to discuss Individuation with dialecticians whoe Yplaine i it by ha ocritas i ' λIn ali Bacon 's discussion os scholastic problems, the solutionhe reached was of a kind to favo ur the falling ore of the meta physical liust , and to bring to light the real and positive problem which lay bene ath it. His scholastic theories Arethere re for iis, and in ali probabili ty were sor him; os sar
lay in another direction a bove and beyond scholasticis m. weshali best learn how to appreciale it by looking at the pro- gram me Os the encyclopaedic work, the Scriptum principale 'osten spolien os in the opus Majus and the opus Tyrtium, buty This word is boli eved to be duo rather to the disciplos of Duns Scotus thanto the master himself. Happily for Hacon's peace of mind, he did not live towitness the triumphal career of the Doctor Subtilis. Os Haureati s cares ut appreciation of his work the final words may be quoted : Cotte philosophie
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never allowed hi in to e Xecute more than a sexu fragment S.
And of these fragmentS many a re loSt. This scriptum principale,' as he telis iis in the fit si Chapter of the uia published work entit ted 'Communia Naturalium 'con Sisted, or was intended to consist, os four UOlumes. The fit si volume dealt with Grammar and Logic, the second with
and Moral S. The second chapter of the ' Communia Naturalium 'is entit ted De Uni Uerso ordine scientiarum naturalium .' He distinguisheseight natural sciences. The firSt treats of the principies common to Natural Philosophy. The Others are: - i in Per
generat principies of Physics forna the subject of the firsttreati se here spolien os . of the seUen speciat Sciences, thefirst three sorm part of what would in the present day be called Physic s. Under Astronomy is included not mere ly the Stud y of planetary motions, but the scientific determination osterreStriat positions, in other Words, Geography, and also the influence of the stars and the sun on the earth and man that is to say, the stud y of climate and os astrological forces. As to the third of the speciat sciences scientia de elementis.'or as he also calles it scientia de Ponderibus,' what in thepresent day would be called Barology, it is not without interest to frid it thus set apari as a distinet depariment of Speculation. The foui th, Alkimia, CorrespondS, SO far as the description Os iis PurpoSe goes, very nearly to the modern science of Chemistry. It de ais, sayS Bacon, with the .mistiones elementorum,' with the generation Os liquid S, gaSeS, and Solides humores et Spiritus et corpora'), with ait inanimate subStances, including Organic produci S u Sque ad partes animalium et plantarum inclusi Ve'). The titie of the fifth science, Agrictilinra, Would be mi S-lead in g, is Bacon had not giVen iis a Clear e planation of itSPurpose'. It is the science of living bodies, vegetat an d
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animal; rOSO in g, ho ever, the subject os man 's physical nature sor subsequent treat ment under the head os medicine. Besore mala be pro perly investigated, we must know thenature and surro undings of other animate things. First we
must distinguisti the soli fit sor different kinds os planis
arabie lancl. forest lanii. pasture land. garclen land. We theneXamine the whole subject os planis ivlii Ch has been lest incomplete in the treati se attribu ted io Aristolle DP IODestabilibus. But as land s Cannot be t illed without domestic animal S, and AS soreStS. PAStures, and deseris depend for their value on thewild animales they contain, the science we a re nON SPeahing Osem braces the fuit consideration os animal li se on which, as Bacon belleved, Aristot te ivrote sar more Volumes than ha UeCome clown to us In the si Mili science we proceed to thestiady of the animal possessing reason, the Stud y Os Man.
of Charies' work is my Excuse for citing the portion of this extra i relating to the Study of living bodies, based, as Bacon explains, on the preliminary Study os Athimia speculativa. Deinceps de plantarum natura et animalium SpecialiSScientia et maxima constituitur, scilicet de omnibus animatis praeterquam de homine, de quo propter nobilitatem suam et dignitatem constituitur scientia propria quae dicitur medicina. Sed in ordine disciplinae prima est scientia animatorum praecodentium hominem et ejus uSui neceSSariorum, quae Primo descendit ad omne genuS agri et terrae, distinguenS quatuor SyOCi CS agrorum, propter Vegetabilia e terra nascentia in eis. Est enim ager in quo Serunt SegeteSet legumina; OSt ager conSi tuS arboribus, ut nemus; eSt ager paSCivuS, Ut prata et deserta; eSt ager qui hortus dicitur, in quo domeSticae arboreS et CauleS et herbae et radiceS tam nutritivae quam medicinales parantur. Haec igitur scientia extendit Se ad perse tam considerationem omnium vegetabilium quorum notitia nimis impersecta traditur in libro De Vehetabilibus Aristotelis ; et ideo necessaria est Scientia sufficiens de plantis et animalibus supplens dessectus librorum communium Aristotelis vulgatorum apud Latinos, qui vocantur De Flantis et Animalibus. Sed cum agrorum cultura non potest fieri sine copia animalium domeSticorum, neque utilitaS agrorum, praecipue ConSitorum arboribuS, Et pascuorum et deSertorum, poSSOt haberi nisi nutrircintur animalia SylveStria, ideo extendit se haec scientia ad plenam con Siderationem animalium omnium; et ad horum cognitionem misit Aristoteles plura millia hominum per regiones mundi, et fecit illa praeclara quinquaginta volumina PriuS memorata. Haec
autem scientia traditur in libris Plinii, in libro Palladii De Agricultura. et in libro Georgicorum Virgilii non ignobili, cum expositione egregii CommentatoriS ejus. Scientia Septima est de animali rationali, scilicet de homine, et praecipue de Sanitate et infirmitate ejus ; et ideo de ejus compositione et generatione illius, Sine quibus Sanitas et infirmitas ejus non possunt intelligi nec doceri. Constat
Uero quod homo eSi res naturalis, et ideo scientia ejus naturalibus constituta erit inter naturaleS COm PrehonSR.
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SCRIPTUM PRINCIPALE. X lvii Our aim heing to unde restand the conditions of his health or
Finalty, to complete the whole. comeS EXPOrimental science.
tion os instruments by which their ConclusionS Rre to be testeo, in the fame way in V hicli a navigator instrucis a Ahipwright asto the bullding of a slii p. Thus; for instance, it instrucis thegeometer to malle a mirror Such that the rays reflected si omit shali converge in a single poliat. It SCrtiti ni ZCS OUCry naturat, e very artificiat force. It si sis the artifices of magic, as logicsi sis the reasonings of the sophist, So as to dissipate salsehoodand error, and leave nothing but truth rem aining. How Bacon would have treate i this part of the subject wehaVe n O means of jud ging other than the Si Yth section of the Opus Majus. But even the Summary eXPosition there gi ven is enough to fhow how large was his conception os eXperimentalmethod, and at the Same time horu care sully he stoered clearos the clanger os undervaluing the mathematical or deductive procesS Os discOVery. So far a s was possibi e the two fhouldbe pursu ed simultaneo asty and in Close allia iace. Euclid's demonstration of his firSt proposition Wouid, he says, sati tocarry complete Coia Uiction UnleSS Vi Sual eVidence of it were sortii coming in the construction of the figure. And on theother hand we see that his inductive investigations of thera in bow were controited at every Step by deductions frona
the principat clivisions of the Scriptum Principale whicli in
the main correspond to the order folio ed in the opus Majus. UrSt comes Langia age, as the channet through whicli thethoughts of other men a re han deci clown to us ; then sol lows Mathematic, embracing the four branches of the Quadrivium,
pass to Physic, whicli included the stud y of the propagation
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X l. iii INTRODUCTION. of sorce, specialty illustrat ed by the radiation os light and heat.
Nevi comes Athimia Speculativa not the mere metallurgyos the gold-seel ers, but the Study of the transformation ofinat ter from iis simplest to iis most complica ted state. Thestu cly of living matter solio ed ending with Medicine, thescience dea ling with the physical Structu re os man. Finalty, the edifice of the sciences is crowned by Ethic and Metaphysi C. of this comprehensive scheme let us See what fragmentSare sortii coming. IV. BACON'S PHILOLOGU. In urging that the comparative Stud y os langu age Should forni part of the Universi ty curriculum, Bacon stood nearlyalone. He cloes indoed fuit justice to those among his con- temporaries Iulio had promo ted the translation of Greel. books into Latin ; and , fit si among those, to the illustrious bishop os Lincoln, his fore runner and Couia Sellor. But though GrosSeleste had caused many books to be translated sor the sal e of their contenis, it cloeS not appear that he or any one et se had PropoSed to Carry the Study os langu age, as Such, beyOnd therout ine of grammar presented in the Trivium ; the Latin
Stud y of Hebrew, Arabic, and Greel , with the dialecis belongingio each. With Hebrew went Chaldaean, and , in more di Stant relationshise, Arabic: with Greek iis various dialecis, which
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langu ages silould be rendered in Latin. The poliat is thata man Ahould be able to read these langu ages and understandi heir grammatical Structu re accidentia partium Orationis, 'Compesu tum Sin ii, Bre Cr, P. 433) What Bacon 's linguistic alta in ments were CRn Dot bo P TC-cis ely decided. No woik of his, publi Shed or unpublished, that I am aware os affordes e Viden ce of knowledge of Arabi C. His Own wordes in the twenty- fifth chapter of Opus Tertium are Scarcely decisive on the poliat. ' De Arabica tango locis suis ; sed nihil scribo Arabice, sicut Hebraee, Graece, et L Atine, quia evidentius et facilius ostenditur propoSitum meum in hi S. Nam pro studio theologiae parum Valet, licet pro philosophia multum, et pro con Versione infidelium .' Sonae pages printed sor the fit si time in this edition Ahoru aequa in tan Ce at leRSt vitii the Hebrew alphabet. An elementary Greeli grammar,
in the possession of Corpus Christi College, OXford, testi fies tollis knowledge of Greeli, whicli inde eo is sum cient ly apparent in the preSent work, and stili more in the ninth and solio ingchaptors of the Compendium Studii Bre ver, I p. 495 519)This grammar is incomplete, dea ling chiefly with the alphabet
with the Greeli system os accentuation, RSpiration, Andquantity, and with the numerat system. It concludes with the
the Greela alphabet into iis Latin equivalents. The Lord 'sPrayer, the Salutation to the Virgin, and the Apost les' Creed
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INTRODUCIDON. are writ ten Out in Latin, underi in ed first with the Greela word sin Roman Character, and secondiy with the fame worcis in Greel . The seconci os these is here gi Uen as an e Xam Dio: AVe Maria gratiosa Dominus cum te benedicta Chere Maria hecharitomeni ho Kyrios meta su eulogi moni Xa ε Μαρια κεχaριτωμ έvη ὁ Κυριος ριετα σου ρυλογημέ ntu in mulieribus et benedictus seu Ctus Uentris tui. Sy en gyneXi ke eulogimen os ho karpos iis kilias sit. συ ἐν γυναῖὶ κ χὶ ευλογλη νος ὁ καρπὸς τλῆς κοιλι- σου.
It is ovident frona the transtiteration os Voweis and diphthongs here adopted vith which may be compared pp. 75-76 of the Opus Majns, print ed for the fi rest time in this edition that these
i In the Corpus Coll. Grammar, a systematic scheme of transtiteration and of pronunciation is also givon. we learn from it that the seconci letter of the alphabet was pronounced like the modern Englisti v ; and that there was nosingle letter rendering the Aound of our b. Item π post M. Vel ν, Sive in eadem dictione, sive in diversis, dummodo sine intervallo proferantur, Sonum nostri bhabet, quom aliter non habOnt, ut λnsa nas, dia πελον. Similiter τ post μι Vel ν Sonat noStrum d, quod aliter non haboni, ut αντι χριστος. ' All this is in a cordan Cewith modern Greela pronunciation. The transtiteration of the diphthongs αυand ευ was a matter of Somes dissicut ty owing to the confuSion botween re and v. Bacon usualty rendors them as se and of But in modern Greek it is only bosore. θ, κ, ξ, Π, σ, T, sp, χ, that they are thuS pronounced : beforo other letters theywould have the found of av or ev. Willi rogard to accents, Bacon's language
both in thes Corpus M S. and in the Compenditim Studii) puis it beyond alidoubi that they governed his pronunciation of the language.