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GAt Us JULI Us CAEsAR lost his fallier at the age of fifteen. During the nera consulfhip, aster being nominated to the pries hood of Juppiter, he broke an engagement, made for tam while hewas stili a boy, to marry one Cossutia: sor, though rich, she came ofonly equestrian family. iustead, he married Cornelia, daughter of that Cinna who had been Consul four times, and later sile bore iam adaughter named Julia. The Dictator Sulla tried to mae Caesar divorce Cornelia: and when he refused stripped him of the pridithood, his wise's dowry, and his own inheritance, treating him as is he werea member of the popular party. Caesar disappeared stom public vlewand, though suffering from a virulent attack of quartan sever, was forced to find a new hiding-place almost every night and bribe home-holders to protect him stom Sulla's secret police. Finalty he won
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Sulla's pardon through the intercession of the Vestat Virgins and hisnear relatives Mamerius Aemilius and Aurelius Cotta. It is wellknown that, when the most devoted and eminent members of the aristocratic party pleaded Caesar's cause and would not let the matterdrop, Sulla at last gave way. Whether he was divinela inspired orshowed peculiar foresight is an arguabie possit, but these mere his ords: 'Very weli then, you wint Tahe hinal But never sorget that the man whom you want me to spare wis one day prove the ruis of the par ich you and Ι have so long defended. There are many Marius'si in this fellow Caesar.' a. Caesar first sm milita service in Asia, where he went as aide-de-ca to Marcus Thermus, the provincial governo generat.*When Thermus sent Caesar to raise a fleet in Bithynia, he wasted somuta time at Mng Nicomedes's couri that a homosexuat relationshipbet em them Was suspected, and suspiciori gave place to scandalwhen, Soon after his retum to headquarters, he revisited Bithynia: ostensilly collecting a debl incurred there by one of his seeedmen. However, Caesar's reputation improved later in the campaign, when Thermus awarded him the cisic crown of oatalewes, at the stormingos Mytilene, for saving a fello soldier's hse. 3. He also campaigned in Cilicia under Servilius Isauricus, but notfor long, because the news of Sulla's deassi sent bim burrying bach to Rome, where a revolt headed by Marcus Lepidus seemed to offer prospects of rapid asiancement.δ Nevertheless, though Lepidus madehim Very aDantageous offers, Caesar turned them down: he hadsmas confidence in Lepidus's capacities, and found the politicas atmosphere less promising than he had been led to belleve. 4. Aster this revolt was suppressed, Caesar brought a charge of extortion against Cornelius Dolabella, an e consul who had oncebeen awarded a triumph, but fassed to secure a sentence: so he decidedio visit Rhodes untii the resultant si Deling had time to die do , mean se talang a course in rhetorio from Apollonius Molo, the bestii ving exponent of the art. Winter had gready set in when he fassed sor Rhodes and was captured by pirates off the istand of Pharmacussa. They kept him prisoner for nearly forty days, to his intense
I. Gaius Marius 13 86 B.C.), the most famous popular leader, Was Consulseven times, and involved Rome in Civit War.
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as the stipulated fifty talents arrived whicli mine Ia,ooo gold pieces , and the pirates duly set his astiore, he ressed a fleet and went aster them. He had osten smilingly sworn, while stili in their power, thathe would goon capture and crucis y them: and this is exactly what hedid. Then he continued to Rhodes, but Mithridates Was now ravaging the nea by coast of Asia Minor; so, to avoid the charge of showinginertia while the allies of Rome were in danger, he raised a force of irregulars and drove Mithridates's deputy from the province - whicli confirmed the timorous and half-hearled cities of Asia in their
os colonet, and he vigorousty helped their leaders to undo Sulla's legislation by restoring the tribines of the peopte to their ancientpowers. Then one Plotius introduced a. bili for the recali froni exileos Caesar's brother-i law, Lucius Cinna - who, with other fesso conspirators, had escaped to Spata aster Lepidus's death and joined Sertorius. Caesar himself spoke in support of the bill, which was
6. During his quaestorshipy he made the customary funerat speeches frona Hie Rostra in honour of his avni Julia and lsis wise Cornelia: and while eulogiging Julia's maternat and paternat ancest , did the fame for the Caesars too. 'Her mother,' he said, 'was a descendant of tangs, namely the Royal Marcians, a family s unded by the Roman Mng Ancus Marcius: and her fallier, of gods - since the Julians of which we Caesars are a branch) rechon descent stom the Goddess Venus. Thus Julia's stoch can claim both the sanctity of tangs, who reign supreme among mortals, and the reverence due togods, who hold even tangs in their power.'He nexi married Pompeia, Quintus Pompey's daughter, who was also Sulla's grand-daughter, but divorced her on a suspicion os adultery with Publius Clodius; indeed, so persistent was the rumour os Clodius's haring disguised himself as a woman and seducedher at the Feast of the Good Goddess, Dom whicli ali men areexcluded, that the Senate ordered a judicis inquiry into the allegeddesecration of these sacred rites. T. As quaestor Caesar was appotnted to stern Spala, where the
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gΟVemor-generes, who held praetorian rank, sent his off on an assis circuit. At Cadi Z he saw a statue of Alexander the Great in the Temple of Hercules, and was overtieard to sigi, impatiently: vexed, it seems, that at in age when Alexander had atready conquered the
whole worid, he himselfhad done nothing in the least epocl mahing. Moreover, when on the fosso ng night, much to his disma , he hada dream os raping his own mollier, the soothsayers greatly encouraged ,him by their interpretation os it: namely, that he was destined toconquer the eari, our Universat Mother.
8. At ali evenis, he laid down his quaestorship at once, bent onperforming sorne notable act at the first opportunity that offered. Hevisited the Latin colonisis beyond the Po, who were bitterly demanti ing the fame Roman Cittienslij as that granted to other townsfoti in Italy: and might have persuaded them to revolt, had not the Consulsrealized the danger and garrisoned that district with the legions recently raised for the Cilician campaign.
9. Undiscouraged, Caesar soon made in even more daring attemptat revolution in Rome itself A few days be re taking up his aedile-shψ,λ he was suspected of plotting with Marcus Crassus, an e consul
also wissi Publius Sulla and Lucius Autronius, who had jointly been selected to the consulfhip but found guilty of bribery and corruption. These had agreed to wait untii the New Gar, and then attach
would then proclaim himself Dictator, and Caesar his Master of Horse; the govertament Would be reorganiged to fuit their pleasure; Sulla and Autronius would be appotated Constas. Tanusius Geminus mentions their plot in his History: more inflammation is given in Marcus Bibulus's Edicis and in the Orations of Gaius Curio the Elder. Another reference to it may be detected in Cicero's letter to Arius, where Caesar is sald to have festablislied in his consul
Tanusius adds that Crassus was prevented, either by scruples or bynerVO ness, from appearing at the appotnted hour: and Caesar ther dfore did not give the agreed signat whicli, according to Curio, Wasletting his gown fati and expose the shoulder. Both Curio and Marcus Actorius Naso state that Caesar alio plotted with Gnaeus Piso, a young nobleman suspected of rai sing a City coi spira and for that reason appotnted Governor-generes of Spala,
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IULIUS CAESAR I 3 although he had net ther solicited nor qualised for the position. Caesar, apparently, was to lead a revolt in Rome as soon as Piso didso in Spala: the Ambranians and the Latins who lived beyond the Powould have risen simultaneously. But Piso's death cancelled the plan. 1o. During his aedilest ip, Caesar filled the Comitium, the Forum, iis adjacent basilicas, and the Capitol itself with a display of themateriat which he meant to use in his public shows: bugding temporary colonnades sor the purpose. He exhibited wiltibeast hunci and stag plays; some at his own expense, some in co-operation with his colleague, Marcus Bibulus - but took ali the credit in ei ther case, sothat Bibulus remarhed openly: 'The Temple of the Heavenly Twius in the Forum is always simply called 'Castor'sV; and I always play Pollux
to Caesar's Castor when we give a public enteriai ment together. 'Caesar alio put on a gladiatorial show, but had collected so immense a troop of combatanis that his terrised political opponenta rushed abiit through the House, limiting the number of gladiators that anyone might heep in Rome: consequently far sewer patrs fought than hadbeen advertised.
II. Aster thus securing the good will of the commons and their tribunes, Caesar tried to get himself elected Governo Generat ofEgypt by popular vote. His excuse sor demanding so unusual an appotniment was an outcry against the Alexandrians who had justdeposed Mng Ptolemy. although the Senate had recognized him asan atly and friend of Rome. However, the aristocratic party opposed the measure; so, as aedile, Caesar took vengeance by replacing the public monuments - destroyed by Sulla many years ago - that had commemoraled Marius's victories over Jugurtha, the Cimbrians, and the Teutons. Further, as Judge of the Senatorial Court of Inqui into Murder, he prosecuted men who had earned public bounties forbring g in the heads of Roman citi etens ouilawed by the aristocrais: although this rough justice had been expressty sanctioned in the Cornelian L s. Ia. He also bribed a man to bring a charge of high treason against Gaius Rabirius who, some years previ ously, had earned the Senate 'sgratitude by checking the seditiovi activities of Lucius Saturninus, a tribune. Caesar, chosen by tot to try Rabirius, pronounced the sentence with such satisfaction that, when Rabirius appesed to the people, the greatest argument in his favour was the judge's obvious pre judice.
13. Obliged to abandon his ambition of governing Egypt, Caesar
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sto od sor the ossice of Chies Pontiff, and used the most flagrant briberyto secure it. The story goes that, rechoning up the enormous debis
thus contracted, he told liis mollier, as site hissed him goodbye on themorning of the poli, that is he did not retum to her as Chies Ponti The would not retum at all. However, he des eated his two prominent rivals, both of whom were much older and more distinguished than himself, and the votes he won from their own tribes exceeded thosecast for them in the entire poli. 14. When the Catilinarian conspiracy came to light, the whole
manded the death penalty for Catiline and his associales. Caesar proposed merely that they should be imprisoned, each in a differentio , and their estates confiscaled. hat was more, he so browbeatinose senators who took a sterner line, by suggesting that the commons would conceive an enduring hatred for them is they persisted in this vlew, that Decimus Silanus, as Consul-eleci, seli obliged tointerpret his own proposί - whicli, however, he could not bring himself to recast - in a more liberal sense, begging Caesar not tomisread it so savagely. And Caesar mould have gained his possit, sincemany senators sincluding the Consul Cicero's brossier) had been wonover to his vlew, had Marcus Cato not kept the irresolute Senate inline. Caesar continued to block proceedings untii a body of Roman ighis, serving as a defence force to the House, threatened to kill hi muniess he ceased his violent opposition. They even Ostieathed thetiswords and made sucii passes at his that most of his companions fled, and the remainder hiaddled around, protecting him with their a sor their go s. He was sussiciently impressed, not only to leave theHouse, but to keep away from it for the rest of that year. 15. On the fissi day of his praetorship, Caesar ordered Quintus Catulus to appear be re the commons and explain why he had madeso hille progress with the restoration of the Capitol; demanding that
16. Caecilius Metellus, a tribune of the people, then defended his
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colleagues' veto by bring g in sonte highly inflammato bilis: and
Caesar stubbornly championed them on the floor of Hae House intilat last both Metellus and himself were suspended by a Senatorial decree. Nevertheless, he had the effrontery to continue holding his coure, uniit wamed that he would be removed by force. Thereuponite dismissed the lictors, took offliis praetorian robe, and went quicHyhome, where he had decided to live in retirement because the times
allowed his no other alternative. On the sollowing day, however, the commons made a spontaneous
move towards Caesar's house, Hotousty offering to put his bach onthe tribunal: but he restrat ned their ardour. The Senate, who hadhurriedly met to deat with this demonstration, were so su rised by his une ectedly correct altitude that they sent a deputation of highossicials to thank him publicly: then summoned his to the Hoviewhere, With warm praises, they revoked their decree and confirmedhim in his praetorsisip. 17. The neXt danger that threatened Caesar was the inclusion of hisname in a list of Catilinarian conspirators handed to the Special Commissioner, Novius Niger, by an informer named Lucius Vettius: andalso in another list laid be re the Senate by Quintus Curius, who hadbeen voted a public bounty as the first person to betray the plot. Curius cla ed that this information came directly Dom Catiline, and Vettius went so sar as to declare that he could produce a letterwritten to Catiline in Caesar's own hand. Caesar would not he down under itus insuli, and appealed to the Senatorial Records, which sbowed that, on Cicero's own admission, he had voluntarily come forward to warn him about the plot; and that Curius was not there re entilled to the boun . As sor Vettius, who had been obliged to produce a bond when he made his revel tions, this was declared forseit and his goods selaed: the commons, crowding around the Rostra, nearly tore him in pieces. Caesar ther Upon sent Vettius Osf to gaol; and Novius Niger, the Commissioner,as well, for haring let a magistrate of superior rank to himself be indicted at his tribunal.
18. The province of Western Spala was now asotted to Caesar.
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appo tment or voted his the necessary funds. He may have beenafraid of being impeached while stili a private citieten, or he may have been anxious to respond as quickly as possibi e to the appess of o Spanish allies for heip against aggression. At any rate, on his arrissin Spari he rapiesy subdued the Lusitanian mountsneers, captured Brigantium, the capital of Gilicia, and returned to Rome in the following summer Wissi eques haste - not watting untit he had been relieved - to demand a triumph and stand for the consul ship. But thed of the consular elections had abeady been announced. His candiadacy could there re not be admitted unless he entered the City as a civilian: and when a generat outcry arose against his intrigues to beexempted frona the regulations governing candidatures, he was facedwith the alternative of forgoing the triumph or forgoing the consuughip.
I9. There were two other candidates: Lucius Lucceius and Marcus
Bibulus. Caesar now approached Lucceius and suggested that theyshould join forces: but since Lucceius had more money and Caesar greater insuence, it was agreed that Lucceius should Gance their joint candida by bribing the voters. The aristocratic party got windos this arrangement and, fearing that is Caesar mere elected Consul,
with a phant colleague by his fide, he would stop at nothing to gain
his own eues, they authorized Marcus Bibulus to bribe the vostri asheavily as Lucceius had done. Many aristocrais contributed toBibulus's campaim funds, and Cato himself admitted that this was an occasion when even bribery might be eXcused as a legitimate means os preserving the Constitution. Caesar and Bibulus mere elected Consuis, but the aristocrais continued to restrict Caesar's influence by ensuring that when he and Bibulus had completed their term neither should govem a province garrisoned by large forces: they would be sent off somewhere 'toguard mounta impastures and keep foresta clear of brigands'. Insuriated by this stigiit, Caesar exerted his charm on Gnaeus Pompey,
who had quarrelled with the Senate because they were so flow in approcing the steps that he had taken to defleat tang Mithridates of
Pontus. He also succreded in conciliating Pompey and Marcus Crassus - they were stili at odds after their fassure to agree on mattersos poticy while stiaring the consulfhip. Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus now formed a triple paci, jointly swearing to oppose si legislation ofwhich any one of them might disapprove.
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JULIUS CAESARITao. Caesar's firsi aci as Consul was to rule that a datly record of proceedings in the Senate, and in the People's Couri, should be takenand published: he also revived the obsolete custom of haring an orderi y walia besore his, during the monilis in whicli his colleagueheld the rods of office. while the lictors marched bellind. Nexi, heintroduced an agrarian law, and when Bibulus delayed iis passagethrough the Senate by announcing that the omens were uniavourabie, drove his froin the Forum by force of arnas. On the following day Bibulus lodged a complaint in the House, and when nobody dared
moVe a vote os censure, or mahe any observation on this scandalous
event - though decrees condemning minor breaches of the peace had osten been passed - he selt so frustraled that he stayed at home for therςst of the terni, satis'ing his reseniment with further announc
Caesar was thus enabled to govem alone and do very much as hepleased. It be me a j oke to sigii and seal bogus documenti: 'Εxecuted during the Consulfhip of Julius and Caesar', rather than: . . during the Consulfhip of Bibulus and Caesar'. And this lampoon went the
The tribune Rullus had proposed to setile a number of poorercitigens ori a Campanian plain called Stellas; and another agriculturaldistrici, also in Campania, had been declared public territory and farmed on belialf of the govertament. Caesar partitioned both thesedistricis among Athers of three or more children, appo ting a commission to choose the candidates, instead os letting them drais thecustomary lots. When the Roman ta fariners asked sor relies hecancelled on third of their obligations, but gave them frank warning not to bid too high for their contracis in future. He Deely granted allother pleas, whataoever, and either met with no opposition or intimidated anyone who dared intervene. Marcus Cato once tried to delay
proceedings by talking out the debate, but Caesar had his soreiblyejected by a lictor and ted off to prison. Lucius Lucullus went a litiletoo far in opposing Caesar's poli cy, whereupon Caesar so terrified hi in by threats of prosecution sor the part he had supposedly played in the Mithridatic War that Lucullus seli on his taees and begged Caesar's pardon. Hearing that Cicero had been mahing a doles ul
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long-standing plea os Cicero's enemy, Publius Clodius, to be transferred from patrici an to plebeian rank; rushing this measure throughthe House at three o'cloch, just be re the alournment. Finalty, heb in an attach on his aristocratic opponents as a body by brining an informer, who appeared on the Rostra and anno ced that some of them had tried to mae him assassinate Pompey. As had beenarranged, the informer mentioned a few names, but the whole affairmas so suspicious that nobody paid much attention and Caesar, realiging that he had been too has , is sald to have polsoned his agent. a I. Caesar then married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Piso, his successor in the consulfhψ: and at the fame time betrothed Julia toGnaeus Pompey, thus breahing her previous en ga gement to Servilius Caepio, who had recently given him a great des of suppori in thestruggle against Bibulus. Ηe now at ways cassed on Pompey to opendebates in the House, though haring hitherio reserved this honour for Crassus: thereby flouting the tradition that a Consul should continue, throughout the year, to prese e the order of preceden eestabliled for spesters on New Year's Day.aa. Flaving thus secured the goodwill of his Athe in law Piso and
and triumphs. True, he was at frst appotnted Govemo Generat oesyos Cisalpine Gaul and Illyria - the proposal came from Vatinius - butaste ards the Senate added Transalpine Gaul to his jurisdiction, fearing that is this were dented him, the commons would insist that he should have it. His elation mas such that he could not restari from boasting to apacked House, some days later, that haring now gained his dearest sh, to the annoyance and gries of his opponenis, he would proceedio 'stamp upon their persons'. When someone interjected with a sneerstat a woman would not find diis an easy feat, he answered amicably: not3 Semiramis mas supreme in Syria, and the Amazons onceresed over a large part of Asia.'a3. At the close of his consulfhip the praetors Gaius Memmius and Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus demanded an inquiry into his officialconduci during the past year. Caesar referred the matter to the Senate, who would not discuss it, so aster three days had been wasted in idie recriminations, he lest for Gaul. His quaestor Was at once charged