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able, but whenever they made insubordinate demands he faced themboldly, and always brought them to heel again - not by appeasement but by sheer exercise of personat authority. At Placema, although Pompey's armies were as yet undeseated, he disbanded the entire Ninth Legion with ignominy, later recalling them to the Colours in response to their abjeci pleas; this with great reluctance and only after executing the ringi eaders. TO. At Rome, too, when the Tenth Legion agitate i sor their dis-charge and bo ty and were terroriging the City, Caesar defied the advice of his friends and at once confronted the muttaeers in person.
Citigens' he readily regat ned their affections. A shout went up ' eare your soldiers, Caesar, not civiliansi' and they clamoured to serve under him in Africa: a demand which he neverthel ess disdained togrant. He showed his contempt for the more distisected soldiers bywithhoiding a third part of the prige-money and land which had beenset aside for them. TΙ. ΕVen as a young man Caesar was well known for the loyalty he showed his dependanis. While praetor in Africa, he protected anobleman's son named Masintha against the tyranny of Hiempsal, King of Numidia: with such devotion that in the course of the quarrethe caught Juba, the Numidian heir-apparent, by the beard. Masintha, being then declared the Κing's vassai, was arrested: but Caesar immediately rescued him from the Numidian guards and harboured his in his own quarters for a long wltile. At the close of this praetorshipCaesar sested for Spat, taking Masintha with him. The lictors carry-ing their rods of office, and the crowds who bad come to say good-bye, acted as a screen: nobody realized that Masintha was hidden in
72. He showed consistent affection to his friends. Gaius Oppius, travelling by his si de Once through a wild forest, suddenly seli sich: but Caesar insisted on his using the only shelter that offered - a wood- culter's hut, hardi y large enough for a single occupant - while he and the rest of his staff slept ouiside ora the bare ground. Having attainedsupreme power he ressed some of his friends, including men of
have shown them gratitude in the fame way.'
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candidature for the consulfhψ, though they had both spolien mostdamagingly against each other. When Gaius Calvus, after his cruella oons of Caesar, made a move to ards reconciliation throughmutuat friends, Caesar mei him more than half way by writing hima friendly letter. Valerius Catullus had also libelled him in his verse Iabout Mamurray, yet Caesar, while admitting that these were a per manent biot on his name, accepted Catullus's apology and invited his to ditiner that fame afternoon, and never interrupted his friend-ship with Catullus's fallier. 74. Caesar was not naturaliu Vindictive: and is he cruci sed the pirates who had held him to ransom, this was only because he had sworn in their presence to do so: and he first mercissilly cut their throats. He could never bring himself to tine vengeance on Cornelius Phagites, even though in his early days, while he was sicli and a fugi live from Sulla, Cornelius had trached him down esit after night id demanded large sums of hush-money. On discovering that Philemon, his flave-secretary, had been induced to polson him, Caesar
Ordered a simple execution, without torture. When Publius Clodius was accused os adultery with Caesar's wise Pompeia, in sacrilegious circumstances, and both her mothe in-law Aurelia and her siste in
law Julia had gi ven the couri a delailed and truthisi account of theas ir, Caesar himself refused to offer any eviden e. The Couri thenas ed hirn why, in that case, he had divorced Pompeia. He replied 'Because I cannot have members of my household suspected, even isthey are innocent.'75. Nobody can deny that during the Civit War, and aster, hebellaved with wonderfui restralat and clemency. Whereas Pompeydeclared that ait who were not actively with him were against himand would be trealed as public ene es, Caesar announced that allwho were not aci ely against his were with him. He allowed every centurion whom he had appotated on Pompey's recommendation to join the Pompeian forces isti e pleased. At Lerida, in Spain, the articles of capitulation were being discussed belween Caesar and the Pompeian generals Afranius and Petreius, and the rival armies were frater-nlaing, when Afranius suddenly decided not to surrender and massacred every Caesarean soldier found in his camp. Yet aster cap-
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JULIUS CAESAR 4Ιturing both generals a sew days later, Caesar could not bring himselfio pay Afranius bach in the fame cori: but let him go Dee. During the batile of Pharsalus he shouted to his meia: 'Spare your fesso
was kised at Pharsalus, once the fighting had ended, excepi Afranius and Faustus and young Lucius Caesar. It is thought that not even thesethree feli victinis to his vengeance, though Afranius and Faustus hadtahen up arnas again after he had spared their lives, and Lucius Caesarhad crueily cut the throats of his famous relative's flaves and Deed-men, even bulcher g the wild beasis brought by him to Rome for a public showl Eventually, towards the end of his career, Caesar invited bach to Italy ali exiles whom he had not yet pardoned, permitting them to hold magistracies and command armies: and went so far as to restore the statues of Sulla and Pompey, whicli the Citycrowds had thrown down and sinashed. He also preferred to dis- courage rather than punish any plois against his hse, or any standerson his name. Ali that he would do when he detected such plois, orbecame aware os secret nocturnal meetings, was to anno ce openlythat he knew about them. As for standerers, he contented himselfwith warning them in public to heep their mouilis si,ut: and good- naturedly took no action either against Aulus Caecina for his most libellous pamphi et or against Pitholaus for his scurrilous Verses. 76. Vel other deeds and sayings of Caesar's may be set to the debit account, and justify the conclusion that he deserved assassination. Notonly did he accepi unconstitutionat honours, such as a lis e-consul ship, a lis dictatorship, a perpetuat Censorship, the titie 'Eniperor' putbe re his name, and the titie 'Father of his Count ' appended to it, also a statue standing among those of the ancient tangs, and a raised couch placed in the orchestra at the Theatre: but took other hono urswhich, as a mere mortal, he should certainly have refused. These cluded a goiden throne in the Senate House, and another on the tribunal; a ceremonial chariot and litter sor car ing his statue in thereligious procession around the Circus; temples, altars and divine images; a pri est of his own culi; a new college of Lupercals to celebrate his divinity: and the renaming of the sevenili monili as Iuly'. Few, in faci, were the honours which he was not pleraed to accepi or
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granted his request. He showed eques scorn os constitutionat precedent by choosing magistrates severat years aliead, decorating tens Ormer praetors with the emblems of consular rank, and admittingto the Senate men os foretgn birili, including semi civiliged Gaulswho had been granted Roman citi genship. He placed his own flaves in charge of the Mint and the public revenues, and sent one of his favourites, a seeedman's son, to command the three legions stationedat Alexandria. 77. Titus Ampius has recorded some of Caesar's public statements whicli reveat a similar presumption: that the Republic was nothing a mere name without form or substance: that Sulla had proved himself a dunce by resigning his dictatorship: and that, now his ownword was law, people ought to be more caressit how they approachedhim. Once, When a soothsayer reported that a sacrificiat beast had bden found to have no heart - an unlucky omen indeed - Caesar toldhim arrogantly: 'The omens will be as favourable as Ι wisti them tobe: meanwhile I am not at ali surprised that a beast should lach theorgan which inspires our finer feelings.'78. What made the Romans hale bim so bitterly was that when, orae day, the entire Senate, armed with an imposing list os honours that they had just voted him, carne to where he sat in front of the Temple of Mother Venus, he did not rise to greet them. Accordingio some accounts he would have risen had not Cornelius Balbus prevented him; according to others, he made no suci, move and grimaced angrily at Gaius Trebatius who suggested this Courtesy. Thecase was aggravated by a memory of Caesar's bellaviour during one
of his triumphs: he had ridden past the benches reserved for the tribunes of the people, and shouted in fury at a certain Pontius Aquila, who had kept his seat: 'Hey, there, Aquila the tribunei Doyou Want me to restore the Republic ρ' For severat days after this incia
dent he added to every undertaking he gave: 'With the kiud consentos Pontius Aquila.'
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79. This open insuli to the Senate was emphasiged by an evenworse example of his scorn for the Constitution. As he rcturned toRome froin the Alban Hill, where the Latin Festival had been celebrated, a member of the crowd set a lauret wreath bound with a royalwhite fisset on the head of his statue. Two tribunes of the people, Epidius Marullus and Caesetius Flavus, ordered the fisset to be removed at once and the offender imprisoned. But Caesar reprimandedand summarily degraded them both: either because the suggestionthat he should be crowned tang had been so rudely rejected, or et sebecause - this mas his o n version - they had given him no chance tor ect it himself and so earn deserved credit. Frona that day forward, however, he lay under the odious suspicion of having tried to revive the titie of Mng: though, indeed, when the commons greeted hina with 'Long live the Κingi' he now protested: 'NO, I am Caesar, notrang'; and though, again, when he was addressing the crowd froni the Rostra at the Lupercali an Festivat, and Mark Antony, the Consul, made severat attempis to crown him, he refused the offer each timeand at last sent the crown away for dedication to Capitoline Juppiter.
What made matters Worse was a persistent rumour that Caesar intended to move the seat of goVernment to Troy or Alexandria,
carrying ois ali the national refources, drasting every avallabie manin Italy for milita service, and letting his friends govern what waslest of the Ci . At the nexi meeting of the House sit was furtherwhispered , Lucius Cotta would announce a decision of the Fisteen who had charge of the Sibylline Books, that since these prophetic ritings stated clearly 'Only a king can conquer the Parthians,' thetille of Κing must be conserred on Caesar. 8o. Because his enenates stirank from agreeing to this proposal, they pressed on with their plans for his assassination. Severat groups, each consisting of two or three mescontenis, now united in a generalconspiracy. Εven the commons had come to disapprove of howlliings were going, and no longer hid their disgust at Caesar's tyrannical rule but openly demanded champions to proieci their ancient liberties. When foret mers were admitted to the Senate sonaeone put
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Theatre, the lictor called oui as usual: 'Mahe way for the Consuli' Cries of protest went up 'What 3 For him He's no Consuli' Thedeposition os Caesetius and Marullus caused suci, widespread annoγ-
ance that at the nera Consular elections the commons Cast a great
many voles in their favour. Someone then wrote on the pedestes of Lucius Brutus's statue : 'Is oesy you were alive nowl ' and on that os Caesar himselfi
Brutus was elected Consulmen he sent the rings aWay; Caesar sent the Constas pactang, Caesar is our Mng to-day.'
More than scity conspirators banded together against bim, ted by
Gaius Cassius and lus lieuienanis Marcus and Decimus Brutus. Asuggested plan was to wait Unisi the Consular elections, when Caesar
Caesar called a meeting of the Senate in the Pompeian AssemblyRoom for the Ides of Marcii, whicli fati on the fifteenth day: theythen decided at once that this would be by far the most convenient
time and place. 8 I. Unmistisable signs forewarned Caesar of his assassination. A fem monilis preriousty the veterans who had been sent to colonige Capua under the Julian Law were breaing up some ancient tombs insearch of stone for their new farm-houses - ali the more eagerly whenthey came across a large hoard of ancient vases. One of these tombs
proved to be that of Capys, the legendary founder of the city, and there th und a bronge tablet with a Greek inscription to this effeci: 'Disturb the bones of Capys, and a man os Trojan stoch will
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be murdered by his tandred, and later avenged at great cost to Italy. 'This sto should not be dismissed as idie fiction, or a he, because our authority for it is none other than Cornelius Balbus, a close friend of Caesar's. Soon afterwards news reached Caesar that a herd of horses which he had dedicated to the river Rubicon, after sording it, and allowed to roam untended in the valley, were beginiung to fhow a repugnance for the pasture and shedding bucketfuls of tears. Again, during a sacrifice, the augur Spurinna warned Caesar that the danger
These warnings, and a touch of ill-health, made him hesitate forsome time whether io go ahead with his plans, or Whether to postpone the meeting. Finalty Decimus Brutus persuaded him not to di sappotat the Senate, who had been in fuit session for an hour or more, westing r him to arrive. It was about ten o'clock when he set ois for the House. As he went, sonaeone handed him a note containing delatis of
the plot against his lise, but he merely added it to the bundie os petiations in his test hand, which he intended to read later. Severat victimswere then sacrificed, and despite consistently unfavourable omens, heentered the Ηouse, deriding Spurinna as a false prophet. 'The Ides of March have come,' he said. 'Ay, they have come,' replied Spurinna, but they have not yet gone.' 82. As soon as Caesar took his seat the conspirators crowded aroundiam as isto pay their respecis. Tillius Cimber, who had taken the lead came up close, pretending to ask a question. Caesar made a gesture of postponement, but Cimber caught hold of his stloulders. 'This is violencel' Caesar cried, and at that moment one of the Casca brothers
the throat. Caesar grasped Casca's arm and ran it thiough with his stylus: he was leaping away whcn another dagger caught him in the
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letting it tali to his feet so that he would die with both legs decently
The entire Senate then dispersed in confusion, and Caesar was testlying dead for some time untii three of his household flaves carriedhim home in a litter, with one arm hanging over the fide. His physiacian Antistius conducted the post mortem and came to the conclusionthat none of the wounds had been mortat except the second one, in the breast. It had been decided to drag the dead man down to the Tiber, confiscate his proper , and revoke ali his edicis: but fear of Mark Antony, the Consul, and Lepidus, the Master of Horse, hept theassasscis Dom mining their plans good. 83. At the request of Lucius Piso, Calpumia's Ather, Caesar's wili, which he had drasted si x monilis be re at his villa near Laricum, and intrusted to the safekeeping of the Chies Vestal, was umesed indread in Antony's house. From the time of his first consulfhip untii theoustreis of the Civit War saccording to Quintus Tubero) Caesar's principat heir had been his so in m Pompey, and Ee used to readout this part of his will to the assembled troops. Later, however, hecancelled the bequest and lese three-quarters of his estate, after certain legacies had been deducted, to Gaius Octavius, asterwards AugustuS, and one-eighth each to Lucius Pinarius and Quintus Pedius. Thesewere his three sororat grand-nephews. At the close of the will he also adopted Gaius Octavius into the Caesar famila, but provided for the possibili ty of a son being subsequently bom to himself and appotated severat of the assasscis as guardians to the boy. Decimus Brutus evenfigured among his heirs in the second degree - that is to say those whowould inherit is the heirs in the first degree were prevented by deassior scrupte from accepting the legacy. Caesar test the commons his gardens on the basis of the Tiber for use as a recreation ground, and three gold pieces a man. 84. When the funerat arrangements had been announced, his friends raised a pyre on the Campus Martius near his daughter Julia'stomb, and a gilded stirine on the Rostra resembling that of Mother
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JULIUS CAESAR Venus. In it they set an ivory couch, spread with purple and goldcloth, and froni a pillar at iis head hung the gown in wltich he hadbeen murdered. Since a procession os mourners, filing past the pyrein orderly Ashion and laying funerat gifts on it, would probably tahemore than a day to organire, everyone was invited to come there bywhateVer route he pleased, regardi ess of precedeiice. Emotions of pityand indignation were aroused at the funerat games by a line froni Pacuvius's play Contest for the Arms of Achilles What, did I save these men that they might murder me and by a similar sentiment Dom Atilius's Electra. Mark Antony dispensed with a formal eulogy: instead, he instructed a herald to read, frst, the recent decree simultaneousty voting Caesar ali divine and human honours, and then the oath by whicli the entire Senate had pledged themselves to watch over his fasely. Antony added a fewshort words of comment. When the ivory funerat couch had been carried down into the Forum by a group of magistrates and eX- magistrates, and a dispute arose as to whether the body should becremaled in the Temple of Capitoline Iuppiter or in Pompey's Assembly Hall, two divine forms perhaps the Twin Brethren suddenly appeared, javel in in hand and sword at thigh, and set freto the couch with torches. Immediately the spectators assisted theblaete by heaping on it dry branches and the judges' chairs, and thecouri benches, with Whatever else came to hand. Thereupon themusicians and the masked professiones mourners, who had wsked in the funerat train wearing the robes that he had himself wom at his ur triumplis, tore these in pieces and fiung them on the flames - towhicli veterans who had assisted at his triumplis added the arms theyhad then borne. Many women in the audience similarly sacrificediheir jewellery together with their children's goiden butions andembroidered tunics. Public grief was enhanced by crowds of rei gners lamenting in their own Ashion, especialty Jews who loved Caesar sor the friendship he had shown them, and came flockingto the Forum for severat nighis in succession. 8S. As soon as the funerat was over, the commons, snatching firebrands stom the pyre, ran to bum down the liouses of Brutus and Cassius, and were repelled with dissicut . Mistaking Helvius Cinna for the Cornelius Cinna who had delivered a bitter speech against Caesar on the previous day, and whom they were out to hili, they
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86. Some of his friends suspected that, having no destre to live much longer because of his fassing health, he had taen no precautions against the conspiracy, and neglected the warnings of soothsayers and welu fhers. It has also been suggested illat he placed such confidence in the Senate's last decree and in their oath of loysty, that he dispensed even with the armed Spaniards who had Utherio acted as his permanent escort. A contrary vlew is that as a relies from takingconstant precautions, he deliberalely exposed himself, just this Once, to ali the plois against his life which he knem had been formed. Also, he is quoted as having osten said: 'It is more important for Rome than for myself that I should s vive. I have long been sated with powerand glo : but, should anything happen to me, Rome mill en joy nopeace. A new Civit War will break out under far morse conditions than the last.'87. Almost ait authorities, at any rate, belleve that he welcomedihe manner of his death. He had Once read in Xenophon's Borhood of rus the paragraph about the funerat instructions given by Cyruson his deathbed, and said how much he loathed the prospect of alingering end - he wanted a sudden one. And on the day be re his murder he had diued at Marcus Lepidus's bovie, Where the topic discussed happened to be fine best sori of deatli' and 'Let it comes stly and inexpectedly.' cried Caesar. 88. He was fisi inve years old when he died, and his immediate deification, formapy decreed by the loyassis in the Senate, convincedihe City as a whole: is oesy because, on the first day of the Games givenby his successor Augustus in honour of this apotheosis, a Cometappeared about an bour be re sunset and shone for seven days ru ning. This was held to be Caesar's foui, elevated to Heaven; hence