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an animal. But that is incorporeia, and may be called athing and a notion, and evorything rather than an animal. The natum os an animal is different. For it Was clearly ShοWn respecting the very potat in question, I mean thenature of the embryo, os What sori it is. The question respecting the meanings expressed by the name animal is difforenti I say, then, ii Du assim that an animal is What has thopomer of sensation and of moring iraeli hom appetencri that an animal is not simply What moves through appetency andis possessed os sonsation. For it is also capabis os fleepinnor, When the objects of sensation ure not present, of not exemcising the po er of sensation. But the natural pomer of appetency or of sensation is the mark of an animal. Foraomething of this natum is indicated by these inings. Fidit, it the foetus is not capable of sensation or motion homappetency; Which is the poliat proposed for consideration. Αnother potnt is; is the foetus is c able of ever exercising the pomer os sensation or moVing through appeten . In whicli sense no ono mahes it a question, since it is evident. But tho question Was, Whether the ombryo is Hready an animal, or stili a plant. And then tho name animal Wasredueod to definition, sor the sahe of perspicui . But ha6ing discovered that it is distinguished from What is not ananimal by sensation and motion imm appeten ; me again separated this hom ita adjuncta; asserting that it mas ono
s sed of the pomer os sensation and motion, but mill somo time bo so, and another thing to be Hready so aetualidi; and in tho case of suta, it is ono thing in exert ita poWers, another to M able in exert them, but to M at rest or afleep. Αnd this is the question. For tho embryo is not to bo called an animal smm theiaci that it is nourished; Which is tho allegation os thom Whotum Mido from the essence of the question, and apply theirm ds in What happens other ise. But in the case os allconclusions alleged to be found out, domonstration is applied
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in common, Which is dis urso λόγος), est lishing ono thingsrom othere. But tho grounia imm Whicli tho mini inquestion is in bo est lishod, must bo admitted and known by the learner. And tho foundation os ali these is What is evident in senso and in intelleci. Accordin y the primary demonstration is composed os allthese. But tho demonstration which, feom potata Hready demonstrated thereis, concludes some other Mint, is no tessrosi te than the former. It cannot be termed primary, cause the conclusion is not Mann iram primary principies
dy is the principia faculty of the foui.
NoW the samo troatment Whicli applies in demonstrationapplies also in the folloWing question. me, sor instance, say that there cannot be severat origunating causes for one animal. It is impossibio that thoracan be severat homogeneous originating causes of in animal; but that iners ahould bo severat heterogeneous, is not
Suppose tho Pyrrhonian suspense of judment, as invsan filio ideaJ that nothing is certain: it is plain stat, Mon- ning with itself, it fidit invalidates iraeu. Ιt either grandi stat something is true, that you are not is suspend Dur judinent in ali things; or it persula in saying that thereis nothing truo. And it is ovident, stat fidit it mill not bo
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And, in fine, is it is true, it Will mari a be nning Withitself, and not be scepticism of anything elso but of itsolffiret. Then is buch a manJ apprehenda that he is a man,
d ii this position is true, that wo do not know What istrue, then absolutely nothing is allowed to be truo by it. But it ho mill say that even this is questionabie, Whether Weknow What is trus; by this very statement he granis that truth is knowabie, in the very aci os appearing to est lishtho doubi respecting it. But ii a philosophical soci is a leaning toWard dogmas, or, according in some, a leaning to a number os domas whichhave consistency With one another and with phenomena, tend-ing to a right liso; and dogma is a logical conception ; and conception is a state and assent of the mind: not merelysceptic' but every one Who dogmatiges is accustomed incertain things to suspend his judgment, either throuo Wantos strength of miud, or mant os clearn s in the things, orequat force in the reasons.
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DEFINITIONS, GENERA, AND SPECIES.
E introductions and so ces os questions are a ut them tuis and in them. But botore definitions, and demonstrations, and divisions, it must be propounded in What ways the question is stated; and equivocat tems aro in be trealed; and synomyms statin accurately according to their significations. Then it is to bo inquired Whether the proposition bolongato those minis, Whicli are considered in relation to others,
is the consideration os theso potnis, the knowle e os Pa ticulus and Universals, and tho Antecedendi and the Differences, and their divisions, contribute. NoW, Uduction aima at generaligation and definition; and the divisions are the species, and what a thing is, and the individual. Tho contemplation os the How adduces the a sumption of What is peculiar; and doubis bring the particulardisserences and tho demonstrations, and othemim augment the speculation and ita consequencos; and the result of the whole is scientific knowledgo and truth. Agata, the summation resulting Dom Division becomes D finition. For Definition is adoptod foro division and aster: fore, When it is admitted or stated; aster, When it is demonstrated. And is Sensation tho Universat is summed up Domthe Particular. For the stariing potnt os Induction is Sens tion ; and the end is tho Universat. Induction, accordingly, shows not what a thing is, but thalit is, or is not. Division shows What it is; and Definitionsimilarly wissi Division teaches tho ossence and What a thingis, but not ii ii is; while Demonstration explains the threepoinis, is it is, what it is, and wis it is.
species, the end; Definition mill be A sold.
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Accordin y We must fidit inhe tho genus, in Whicli arothe pianis that ars nearest inose abovo; and aster this thonexi differencs. Αnd tho succession os differences, When cui and divided, completes the What it is.' There is nonecessity for expressing ali tho differences of each thing, butthmo Whicli form tho species. Geometrical analysis and synthesis are similar to logicaldivision and definition; and is division wo get bach in Whatis simple and more elementa . We divide, theresore, insgenus of What is proposed for consideration into the species contained in it; as, in the case of man, me divide animal,
Which is the genus, into the species that appear in it, themorial, and the immortal. Αnd thus, is continuatly dividingitiose genera that wem to bo compound into the simplerspecies, We arrive at the potnt Whicli is the subject os investigation, and whicli is incapable of surther division. For, after dividing tho animal ' into mortia and immortal, then into terrestriai and aquatic; and tho terrestriat againinis thoso who fly and thoso who Walh; and so dividing thospecies Whicli is nearest to What is fought, Which also contains What is fought, me arrive by division at the simplest species, Whicli contains nothing else, but What is mugiit Hone. For again me divido that which wallis into rational and irrational; and then solecting hom tho species, apprehendedis division, those nexi in man, and combining them into one formula, me stato the definition os a man, Who is an animal, mortes, terrestriat, Walhing, rationat. Whenes Division sumishes the clam os mauer, seehingsor the definition tho simplici of tho namo; and tho definiation os the artisan and maher, is composition and construction, presenta tho knowledgo os tho thing as it is; not os in othings of Which we have generat notions. To these notions e say that explanatom expressiona belong. For to thesenotions, also, divisions are applicabie. Now ono Division dividos that which is divided into species,as a genus; and another into paris, as a Whole; and another
The division, then, os a Wholo into the paris, is, for the
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most pari, conceived With reserance to magnitudo; that into the accidendi can never be entirely explicated, is, necessarib, essence is inherent in eata of the existen s. Whonce both these divisions are to be rejected, and Onlytho division os the genus into species is approved, by Whichboth sto identity that is in the genus is characteriae' and the diversi whicli subsista in the specific differences. The species is almus contemplated in a pari. On theother hand, however, is a thing is pari os another, it mill notbe also a species. For the hand is a pari os a man, but it is not a species. Αnd the genus exista in the species. For ilis genu is both in man and the ox. But the wholo isnot in the paris. For the man is not in his feet. Wher foro also the species is more important than the pari; and whalaver things are predicated of the genus Will be ali pr dicated of the specim. It is best, then, in divido the genus into imo, it notinis three species. Tho species then being divided morogenerically, are characteriZed by samenem and disserenoe. And then Ming divided, they are characteriaed by the minis genericalty indicated.
For each of the species is ei ther an essenes; as When mesari Some substances are corporeal and wme incorporeat; orho much, or What relation, or Where, or When, or doing, orsuffering.
One, thereiare, mill give tho dofinition of whalaver hopossesses the knowledge os; as one can by no means beacquainted milli that which ho cannot embrace and defino in speech. Αnd in consequence of ignorance of the definition, the result is, that many disputes and deceptions arise. Foris he that knows tho thing has the knowledgo of it in his mind, and can explain by Words What he conceives; and itine explanation of the thought is definition; then ho that knows the thing must os necessity be able also to give tho definition.
Now in definitions, disserenoe is assumta, Which, in tho definition, occupies the place of sign. The faculty oi lauo-ing, accordin*n being added in the definition os man, mahes
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the whole-a rational, mortes, terrestriat, Walhing, laughinganimal. For the things added by Way os differenco to tho definition ars tho signa of the properties of things; but donot show the nature of the things themselves. NoW theysay that the difference is the assigning os What is peculiar; and as that which has sto difference differs from ali the rest, that whicli bolongs is it alone, and is predicated conversebos tho thing, must in definitions bo assumed by the fini genusas principat and fundamentat. Accordingly, in the largor definitions the number os thospecies that ars discovered are in tho ten Categories; and in the least, the principat potnts of tho nearest species beingtaken, mark the essence and nature os the thing. But tholeast consista of three, the genus and tWo essentialty nece
sary species. Αnd this is done for the sahe of brevi . We say, then, Man is the laughing animal. And wo mustassume that which pr eminently happens to What is defined, or ita peculiar viriue, or iis peculiar iunction, and the lita. Accordingly, while the definition is explanatory of thoomence of the ining, it is incapable os accurately comprehending ita nature. ' means os the principat species, thedefinition maes an exposition of the essence, and almost has the essence in the quali .
THE causes productive os scepticism aro tWo things principally. one is tho changesuiness and instabiliu of thohuman minit, Whose nature it is to generate dissent, either that of ono mith another, or that os peopte With themselves. Αnd the second is the discrepan whicli is in things; Whicli, as to be expected, is calculated to bo productive os scepticism. For, Ming unable either in bellove in ali viems, on accountos their conflicting naturo ; or in distelleve ali, camethat Which says that ali are unditiabis is included in the
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number os those that ara so; or in bellove some and distolieveothera on account of the equipolae, me are led to scepticism. But among the principat causes os scepticism is the instabili of the mind, which is productive os dissent. And dissent isthe proximate cause of doubt. Whones lifo is suli os tribunals and counctis; and, in fine, of selection in What is said tobe good and bad; Whicli are the signs os a mind in do i, and halting throuo Deblenes' on account of conflictingmattera. And thero are libraries fuit os books, and compilations and treatises of thoso Who differ in dogmas, and aro confident that they themselves know the truth that there is in things.
D language there are three things: ames, Which areprimarily the symbols ot conceptions, and is consequencealso os subjecis. Second, there are Conceptions, Whicli are thelthenosses and impressions of the subjecis. Whence in ali, the conceptions are the fame; in consequence of the fame impression being produced by the subjecta in all. But thenames are not so, on account of the difference of languages.
are impressed in us. The Names are reduced by grammar into the twentPMurgenerat elementa ; for the elementa must be determinod.
For os Particulare there is no scientific knowle seeing they are infinite. But it is the property os science to reston generat and defined principies. Whence also Particulamare resolved into Universias. And philosophic research is occupied with Conceptions and Real subjocis. But since of these the Particulara are infinite, somo elements have been Dund, under Whicli every subject os investigation is brought; and is it bo fhown to enter into any one or more of the elemendi, we prove it in exist; but is it escape them ali, thatit does not existi
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But immateriat things aro capsile of being apprehended by the mind alone, by primary application.
And of those things that ara classed under tho ten Categories, soms are predicated by themselves the nino Cat gortes), and othere in relation to something. Αnd, again, of the thinga contained under these ten
is an animal. For thoso are Univocat terms, to both of whichbelongs the common name, animal; and the fame principie, that is definition, that is animate essence. And Heteronymsare thoso Whicli relato to the fame subjeci undis different names, RS ascent or descent; for the way is the samo WhethorupWatas or do nuisti. And the other species of Heteronyms, as horae and blach, are those Which have a different namoand definition iram each other, and do not possem the fame
subieci. But they are to be called different, not Heteronyma. And Polyonyms are thois .hich havo the fame definition, but a different name, as, hanger, sWord, scimitar. AndParonyma are those Whicli are named hom somethingdifferent, manly ' hom manlinem.'Equivocat terms have tho samo name, but not tho famΘdefinition, as man both the animal and the picture. Os Equivocat tems, some receive their Equivocat name fortui- inusty, as Ajax, the Locrian, and the Salaminian ; and somo hom intention ; and of these, some imm resemblance, as
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are designatia Dom the fame and to the fame; as ino book and scalpet ars called surgicat, both iram the surgeon Who es them, and with referetice to the surgicat matter iraeli.
Those that afford the occasion of the origin os mythingfirat, are Procatarchic ; as beauty is the cause os love to the licentious; for When seen by them, it alone produces theamomus inclination, but not necessarily. Causes are Synectic Which are also univocatly perfeci ostheniselves) Whenever a causo is cap te os producing the offect os iraeli, independently. NoW ali tho causes may bo inown in order in tho caseos tho learner. The fallier is the Procatarctic cause oflearning, tho Macher the Synectic, and the naturo of thelearner the Comperating cause, and time holds the relationos the Cause sine qua Non.
Some, then, say that causes are properties os bodies; and othera os incorporeat substances; othera say that the bodyis properj speahing cause, and that What is incorporeat is in Only catachresticatly, and a quasi-cause. Othera, again, r Verse matters, saying that corporeat substances are pro Hycauses, and bodies are so improperly; as, lar example, stat cuiling, Which is an action, is incorporeat, and is the cause