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IN Philosophy the Romans originate nothing. Their ener-gies in the earlier ear of the state ere holi absorbe in organi gatio an conquest. Restin in a stern and simplecreed the had ille speculative interest in alter ouis idethe har ro uti ne of thei dat lycii se But illi the lose of the Periodis Conquest came a change. The influx of wealth stomconque rei provinces, the formation o large lande estates the excessive employmen o flave labor, and the consequent riseos a ne ariStocracy, prepare the waycior a great revolution. The old religion lost iis hol o the igher classes omethingwas neede to tali it place With wealth and luxur came opportunit an des ire for culture. Greece, illi Art, Literature, an Philosopli fuit de velope an hi ghi persected,
stoo ready to instruct her rude Conqueror. λIn Cicero' time the productive era o Gree Philosophyiad ell-nighiasSed It tenden Cy a les speculative more ethica and practica than in the earlier time. There ere four prominent schoois, the New Academy the Peripatetic the Stoic and the Epicurean The supporter of the ast-name advocate in Science the doctrine of the atom in Ethic the pursuito pleasure, in Religion the complete nactivit of the od S.
Horace, EP. 2, I, I 56: Graecia casta enim victorem cepit, et artes tulit agresti Latio.
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The Stoic an Peripatetic Were divide by comparati vel un- important differen ces. In Ethics, considered by them as almost the whole o Philosophy, hicli as iis et define as the arto livingy the main question et ween the wo Schoot was theamount of importance to e attribute to Uiriue, the Stoic sese claring that in Comparison illi Viriue allisther hings inhinto absolute inSignificance, hi te the Peripatetic maintain edthat thes have a certain though infinitesimal ly mali significance. The Ne Academ taught at this time no complete philosophical System. It impi proclai med the vi e that in the fel o k nowledge certaint is unattain abie, and that ali heinquirer has toto suo balance probabilities one against themther. The Ne Academic there fore, as ire t accepi any opinion Swhichisee me toti m to have the weight o probabili tyin theirside but he was bound to e ready to abandon them heia an thin appeared whicli altere his vi e w of the probabilities Heno only might e, ut e could not et heing, clectis thatis, he chos Auch vieres promulgate by the school a se e medio him at the moment tot moS re ason able or probabie. Cicero
calle himself an adherent of this schooL On mos poliat howe ver although Clecti c. e greed illi the Peripatetics; but, illia decide lean in toward the Stoic ethica system. The Stoicopinio that it is the ut os the wis man to abstain rom publicli se, hici, the Peripatetic contes ted Cicero decisi vel rejected. With the Epicureans he had absolutet no Sympathy. Ut tothis time these school and thei te achings e re nown to the Romans ni through the medium of the Greeh. The oralyLatin philosophica literatur Was Epicurean, and excepting the poemii Lucretius De erum Natura), carcet lamou as et, consiste entiret o book rudet written, although considerably
Cicero made no claim to originali tyras a philoSopher no evento complete acquaintance illi every detail of the Greel systems. λ
De Off. I, I, 2 philosophandi scientiam concedens multis et C.
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In early lis he had studi ex ith enthusias an succes ali helearn in of the Greelis, but speciali in the w depariments
of Rhetori an Philosophy, then loSel Connected or ather hardly distinguis hed. He notini fought the societ os learn edGreelis, ut pent considerable time in stud a Rhodes and Athens, hicli adiecome o meret the schoo o Greece', a Thucydides malles Pericles ali her, but the schoo of the civilige worid. When, b re ason o politica troubles, he was force to et ire t private lite heaegan to carry ut a great planior interpretin the best philosophica writings of the Greelis tollis sellow-countrymen. For his or his liberal vlews as New Academi peculiari fit ted hi m. His usual method was totali one or two lead in Gree work o the subject illi hichhe was dealing, and to represent reel in his own langu age their subject-m alter, introducing epi sodes an illustrations of his own. He thus presente to the Roman in theiriwn longue the ostsignificant portions of the Gree Philosophyri and in his ritingsther has come down to us much, Speciali of the Post- Aristotelia Philosophy, that was cloo me to oblivio in the original Greel . ut further than his, o Cicero more than to any ther
Roman is due the formation o a Latin philosophicat vocabulary, by hich the langu age as enriche an fitte so the par ithas since alien a the angvage of the earn ed. While onman potiat Cicero' own vlews an hard lyte determine with perfeci exactneSS, the exaltei sentiments and the exquisite literar finis his his philosophicat writings have always Won admira tion and through them e has exerte no mali influenc onthe literatur an lite os modern timeS. -
To judge rightly o Cicero it ni necessar to refer for X-muSt be remembere that he was ample to the weight gi ven to thea politician ni by accident his opinion o Cicero in the eate twhole natura bent a toward political discussion of the ix. literature ieenth and Se venteenth centuries
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During the whole o an exceptionali bus public life Cicero devoted his spare moments o re ad in an to the societ of thelearned. Aster his exile in Mand 7 B. C. his political Career, except for a brie perio jus besore his dea th, as ver an itis at this time that his period i great iterar activit begins. In 33 e produce the work De Oratore, in 34 the De e Publica an in f the De Leg Euιs, ali three OrkS, CCOrclin toancient ideas, entit texto rank a philosophicat. λFrom S to 46 B. Q. o in firs to his ab se iace in Cilicia, thento the civi troubles, Cicero almost eased to rite. ut in thelat ter ea he was reconcited illi Caesar, and a the Senate andia cotiris e re losed against hi in on his refusa io compromise his political principies, e betook hiniseli vitii greate devotionthan vero literature. The first orti ritiei ii 46 was the Hortensius, o De Philosophia no lost. It wa iounde Mon alos dialogue o Aristolle, and se forti the aclvant ages fistucly- in Philosophy. During the fame ea Cicero complete Severa oratorica works the Partitiones Oratoriae, the rutus, oro Claris Oratoribus, and the Orator, at o whicli are extant.
pas sed the whole ea in reti rement try in to ooth his riei by incessant ri ting. In qui k succession appeared De Consolarione, an attei Dp to appi philosoph to the mitigationis his own Sorrox and that os others Aca emica, an exposition of the e Academic Philosophy advocatin probabilit rather han Certaint a the Mundationo philosophy
De Finibus Bonorum et Maiarunt, a ori Criticis in the ostprominent View enter aine concerning Etlii CS Dissutatio=tes Tusculanae, reatin o certain Condition essentia to moralit an happine S ;
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De Natatra Deorum, an examinatio of the principat theories regarding the nature an power of the gods; Cato Maior, nil age Laelius, o friendShip
De Fato discussin Fate an Fre Wili; Paradoxa, a book Aetling sortii certain re markable view of the StoicS De mciis, a reatis o praetica ethies, the application imorat principies to the question an difficulties of ordinary
Cons. stili extant the lis may be ad deditso the work of a rhetorica nature suci a the Topica an De Optimo Ge=tere Dicendi, an sonae los philosophica books. Such a De Gloria. Eve though allowance e made so the fac that Cicero asgiving in Latin the substance of Greel book with which he hadbeen familia fromioyhood, the mentat vigor an literar po erexhibite by this series of orti appea prodigious hen e conside their great Compas an variet an the generali hi glifinis his thei style. fereric For a fuller account of Cicero' philosophi calvi e s and writings consul Ritter 'Histor of Ancient Philosophyy Vol. 4 Ch. 2 Maurice, mora an Metaphysica Phi
244 Teusset, mistor o Roman Literature ' Vol. I, DI 72 et seq. Cruttwell, mistor o Roman Literature', h. II. Parto, Ch. 2: Ciceio' Coli ins in Ancient Classic ior Englisti ReaderS Ch. O et seq. also the Introduction to Reid' editiono the Academica, and the account of Cicero b Profinamsayin Smilli' Dictionar o Biograph and Mythology. The moSi attractive bio: rapi, o Cicero in Englisti is that hy Forsyth. Thati Troilope is able but qui te partisan. the philoSophy,
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ci INTRODUCTION. II. THE CATO MAIOR.
i. ORIGIN AND SCOPAI Date and Orcumstances of Composition. The dat at whicli the Cato Maior a Writte can e dete mine with almos perfeci exactness. A mentio in Cicero 'swor entille De Divinatione' ho A that the Cato Maior precede that or by a hori time. The De Divinatione aswrit te after the assassination o Cae Sar, that is, after the Stho Marcii in the ear 44.: Again the Cato Maior is mentionedas a recent,or in three et ter addresse by Cicero to Atticus. 3The earli est os these letters as ritie on or bout thera atho May, 4. We hali ardi err thereire ii, assume that Cicero composed the Cato Maior in Aprilis the ea M. This rees also illi light indications in the wor it seli. In the dedicator introductio Cicero Apealis of troubles eighinglieavit on himself an Atticus. Any one ho read the etters o Atticus de spat he in April, o, ill have litile oubtiliat the troubles inte at are the apprehension a to thecourse of Antonius, rom ho Cicero ad personali someth in to ear. Atticus as Sin ali the influence e could bring to bear o Antonius in orde to secure Cicero's asely:
2, 3 interiectus est nuper liber a Sommerbrod assumes, in theis quem ad tostrum Atticum V intervat of composing the Mese=rectute misimus argument Divinatione. The ordo in I, can e founded on the worus m of that ork - quoniam de re puruteriectus est, ver hich the edi I in consuli coepti sumus etc. tors have aste much ingenuity. oin to the en of September orThey impi mean here a in beginning of October, 44, henserte in the Series of my orkA . Cicero ueturnet to Romae an d
Se 2, 23. began to compose his Philippic
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nence Cicero' care to avo id in the dedication ali ut thevagues possibi allusion to politic s. ad that introductionbeen written efore Caesar' death, e liould have ad plain allusions as in the prooemia of the Academica, the De Finibus, the Tusciιla Dissutations and the De Natura Deorum to
Caesar' dictators hip. λThe time a one o desperate gloo sor Cicero. The clownial of the old constitution ad verwhel med im illi sorro , an his brie oviburs of o ove Caesar' death ad been qui chi succeede by disgus and alar at the proceedings of Antonius. The dee wound caused by his augiiter' de ath was stili unhealed. It is eas to calch in the Cato Maior omeechoes of his rie lor her. When it is sal that os ali Cato 'stilles to admiratio non is hi glier than the fortitude e lio edin earing the death of his son, the writer is thinhing of the struggle he himself ad been agin against a like sorro sormore than a year past; and when Cato expresses his fir convictio that he wil me et his hil heyon the grave Canse Cicero'S Wn earning for re union illi his deepi loved Tullia. 2. Gree Mure . At Cicero' philosophica an rhetorica writing were Confessedi founde more or es o Gree originals . The stores from hich e principali dre in rit in the Cato Maior arecleari indicate in severat paris of the work. Passages rom Xenophon 'si conomicus are translated in Chapter I and 22. In Chapter a and 3 there is a clos imitatio of the Conversatio belween Socrates an Cephalus at thelegi nn in o Plato's msublic, hil in Chapter II is re produce one of the ost
It is perhaps no a mere acci a In Marcii 43. dent that the prowes of L. Brutus δἰ a. in liberanda atria is mentione in Q 84. 73 here a be a reference . Se p. iii above. to the latest Brutus h had freed
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stri hing portions of the hae o 72 E-73 B, 78-8o. The vie of the divine origin and destin o the human ou containe in the passage fro the Phaeae is rendered by Cicero in many of his orlis, and was et by him illi qui te a religious servoran sinceri ty. Besides these instances of Specia indeblednes Cicero, incomposing the Cato Maior, a no Oub unde obligations of more genera hin to the Greelis. The formo the dialogueis Greeh, and Aristotelian ather han Platonici But further,it is hi ghi probable that Cicero me to Some particula Greeli dialogue ii ld Ag the generat utline of the arguments hethere bring forward. Many of the Gree illustrative allusions may have ad the Same origin though in many Cases Romanillustrations mus have been substitute for Greeh. Whether the dialogue y Aristo Cius, cursorii mentione in the Cato Maior, was at alnus edi Cicero or no it is impossibi to determine. .
The Cato Maior is a popular essa in Ethics, applying the principies of philosoph to the alleviation o one of se' chi efburdens old age. In ancient times, when philosoplay formed therea and only religionis the educate clas A. thernes like this eredee me to afford a orthy employment for the pens eveni thegreate Si philosophers. Such Ssays forme the ni substitute the ancients ad for ur Sermons There an e no doubtii Cicero' sinceri ty When e say that the argumentiae seis
In the notes exac referen ces have been writ tela by Theophrastus will e gi ven to the places in the and Demetrius Phalereus, ei ther Original, here the ther passage or both of hicli Cicero might mentione d a b found have sed. ne passage in h67, Particulari the rs book of facilius in morbos ... tristius Iι- the 1ιscilla; Dissutations the De a1rDιr, is suppoSed by many to Restifica, and the Laetius have been imitate froni Hippo- See 4 below. crates, but the resemblance 4S
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sortii in the reati se ad gi ven him rea comiri' and the penino word of the dedication Aho that he ineant and ope toadminister the fame com sorto his frien Atticus, ho inde ectaclinowledged the benefit e derive troin the work. When Cicero rote the reatis he was himSel Sixty-tW years of age whil his friend was three ear older He Spe akS, thereiore rather euphemisti Cail When e says ilia hi purpos is lolighte the troublem an id age hic licis Uready clos atra and or at ali event approaching. 'But in addition to the main ethica purpose, there aS a in many o Cicero's ortis, a distinc politica purpos e. Hedes ire to stimulate in his reader an admiratio sor ha heregarde a the olde age of Roma politi cs the era of the Punic ars, and o do hi by mali in the contrast be tween that age an hi own appea a strii in a possibi e . A like oublepurpos is apparent throughout the De e Publica, here Africanus the ounge is the hie perSonage, an in the reati Se onFrien d sh ip here Laelius is the centra figure. For the dialogiae on id Age M. Porcius Cato the Censor is selecte asthe principat Speaher o tW reason : rst hecause he was renowne for the vigor of in and od he displaye in ad-vance lise M an secondiy, ecause in him ere conspicuou Styexhibite the serious simplici ty, the ungwervin adherenCe toprincipie, and the Selbsacrificin patriotism hicli,ere the ideat Roma virlues, and whicli Cicero could notin among the politicians o his time. 4. Foran an fetan ua H.
The Cato Maior like mos o Cicero' philosophica writings, is ast in the formis a dialogue Among the ancient the dia
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logue a a common rhetorica device, Speciali in the presentationi abstruse subject S. The introductio os character toconduci the discuSsion ave vividnes an ClearneS to the n-
solding of the argument, a wel as a Lindisi dramatic interest tolli production. In the Cato Maior and the Laelius, a gener- atly Cicero tollowed the plani Aristolle' dialogues nox lost)rather tha that of the dialogues of Plato. In the forme there was more of expositio an les o discussion than in the alter;
one person state hi Vie Sin Ome que Stion, and the company in attendance ni made occaSional remari S ithout attemptingio debat the question In the lalter although ne person, Socrates, is Verywhere prominent, ther are Continuali drawn
in to the discussions and there S a qui C intercliange of question and an wer. The Aristotelian or m a belle adapte to Cicero' purpo se than the Platoni ; the progress of the argument a les interrupted, and thus belle opportuni ty for asymmetrica development of the theme as afford ed. Then, too the Ormer a more popular. The style of Aristoties h adbeen imitate by Theophrastus an many the writers Ownto Cicero' time. hile that os Plato ad found hardi any
The editor of the Cato Maior have generali assume that Cicero attempte to ive an antique coloring to the dictionis the dialogue in orde to rem in reader of Cato' own style. Iti Ont nece SSary to ea a page o two o Cato' De e usticato have his illusion dispellecl. The ni things actuali allege lio be archaism a re I the se of deponent partici Ple a paS-