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patchlag: and proved that his rival had falled to conduci himself asbefitted a Roman citigen, by ordering the will he had deposited at Rome to be opened and publicly read. It listed among Antony's heirs
the illegitimate children fathered by him on Cleopatra. Neverthel ess, when the Senate ouilawed Antony, Augustus allowed ali his relatives and friends to join him under fase conduci, including Gaius Sosius and Titus Domitius, the Consuls of the year. He also excused Bologna, acity traditionalty dependent on the Antonian family, stom rallying tollis fide as the rest of Italy was do g. Presently he deseated Antonyin a se batile os Actium, where the fighting went on so long that hespent the whole night aboard his flagship
In writer-quarterS On Samos, after this victory, Augustus heard theatarnaing news of a mutiny at Brindisi among troops whom he had piched from every corps in the Army. They were demanding the bounties due to them and an immediate discliarge. He returned toItaly, but ran into two stornis: the first be een the headlands of the Peloponnese and Aetolia: the second off the Ceraunian Mountatis. Some of his galleys went down on both occasions: the riggingos his own vesset carried away and her rudder spht. He si ed nomore than twent seven days at Brindisi, just long enough to pacifythe muttaeers: then took a roundabout route to Egypt by way of Asia Minor and Syria, besieged Alexandria, where Antony had fled with Cleopatra, and soon reduced it. At the last moment Antony sued forpeace, but Augustus ordered him to commit sulcide and satisfied himself that he had obeyed by inspecting the corpse. He was SO anxioUSto save Cleopatra as an ornament for his triumph that he actuallysummoned Psyllian snah charmers to such the polson from her self inflicted wo d, supposedly the bite of an asp. Though he allowed the lovers honourable buriat in the fame tomb, and gave orders that
the mausoleum whicli they had begun to bulld should be completed, he had the et der of Antony's fons by Fulvia dragged froni the image of the God Julius, to which he had fled with vain pleas for mercy, and
executed. Augustus also sent cavsry in pursuit os Caesarion, Julius
and gave them the education whicli their rank deserved. 18. About this time he had the sarcophagus containing Alexander tho Great's mu y removed from the Mausoleum at Alexandria
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and, after a long look at iis features, showed his veneration by crowning the head with a goiden diadem and strewing flowers on the tr h. When asked ' ould you now like to visit the Mausoleum of the Ptolemies ' he replied: 'Ι came to see a Ung, not a row of corpses.' Augustus turned the kiugdom of Εgypt into a Roman province; and then, to increase iis fertilily and iis yield of grain for the Roman market, Set trOOps to Clean out the irrigation canals of the Nile Delta wluch had sit ted up after many years' neglect. To perpetuate the gloryof his victory at Actium, he unded a city close to the scene of thebatile and named it Nicopolis or 'City of Victo ' and madearrangements for the celebration of Games there every five years. Hesso enlarged an ancient locat temple of Apollo, and embellislied hisca with trophies taken Dom Antony's fleet, consecrating the site jointly to Neptune and Mars. 19. Nera, he suppressed a series of sporadic riois and revolis; besides certain conspiracies, ali of them detected be re they becamedangero . The leaders of the conspiracies were, in historical sequence: Lepidus the Younger; Varro Murena, and Fannius Caepio: Marcus Egnatius: Plautius Rufus and Lucius Paulus the hvsband of Augustus's grand-daughter , aided by Lucius Aridasius, a seeble oldman who had been indicted for forge . Then came Audasius and Epicadus, whose plan had been to rescue Augustus's daughter Julia and his grandson Agrippa Postumus from the prison istands wherethey were confined, and forci bly take them to the legions abroad But attempis against Augustus's life were made by men from eventhe lowest walias of his: so I must not serget one Telephus, a staVe, ose iask it had been to remiud a nobie mistress of her en gagementa: he nursed a delusion that he was faled to become emperor, and planned an armed attach on the Senate as well. Then in Illyrian camp-orderly, who had managed to sneah into the Palace without bellignoticed by the porters, was cingiit one night near the Imperial bed room, brandishing a hunting-kesse; but since no statement could beextracted from his by torture it is doctilat whether he was reatly insane or meret y pretending to be. ao. hugustus Command ed armi es in oesy two foretgn wars against the Dalmatians while he wa st IIJn his 'teens, and against the Cantabrians after deseating Anto . In one of the Dalmati an batiles his right knee was brui sed by a sting-sione: in another, he had one legand both arnis severely crushed when a bridge collapsed. The remain-
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21. Lither as a locat commander, or as commander-in-chies at Rome, Augustus conquered Cantabria, Aquitania, Pannonia, Datimatia, and the whole os Illyricum, besides Raetia and the Alpine tribes known as Vindelicians and Salassians. He also checked the raids of the Dacians, inflicting hea' casualties on them - three of their generali seli in action: drove ali the Germans bach across the Elbe, except the Suebians and Sigambrians, who surrendered and agreed to setile in Gallic territo near the Rhine; and pacifed other tribes Who gave
Yet Augustus never wantonly invaded any country, and seli notemptation to increase the boundaries of Empire or enhance his military glory; indeed, he made certain barbarian chiestatas swear in
22. The gales of the Temple of Janus on the Quirinal, which hadbeen closed no more thara mice since the foundation os Rome, he
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closed three times during a far shorter period, as a sign that the Empire was at peace on land and at sea. Fle e oyed a triumphat ovation after Philippi. and again aster his Sicilian successes - and celebrated three fuit trium plis for his victories won in Dalmatia, off Actium, and at Alexandria. 23. He suffered only two hea' and disgracesia deseais, both in Germany, the generals concerned being Lollius and Varus. Lollius's . deseat was ignomini ous rather than os strategic importance: but Varus's nearly wreched the Empire, since three legions with ait their officers and auxiliary forces, and the generat staff, were massacred toa man. When the news reached Rome, Augustus ordered the Guardsto patrol tiae City at night and prevent any rising : then prolonged theterms of the provincial govemors, so that the allies should have menos experience, whom they trusted, to confirm their allegiance. Healso vowed to celebrate Games in honour of Juppiter Greatest and Best as soon as the political siluation improved: similar vows hadbeen made during the Cimbrian and Marsi in Wars. Indeed, it is sald that he took the disaster so deeply to heari that he lest his bait indbeard untrismed for monitis: he would osten beat his head on a door,sbouting: 'Quinctilius Varus, give me back legionsi' and gwayskept the anniversary as a day of deep mourning. 24. Augustus introduced manu reforms into the Arin, besides reViving certain obsolete practices, and eXacted the strictest discipline. He grvdged even his generals home-leave, and granted this oesyduring the winter. When a Roman knight cui olf the thumbs of his o young sons to incapacitate them for Army service, Augustus hadhim and his proper public* auctioned: but, realieting that a groupos ta collectors were bidding for the man, knocked him down to an peris freedman with instructions that he should be sent away andallowed a seee existence in some comtry place. He gave the entire Tenth Legion an ignomini ous discliarge η because of their insolent bellaviour, and when some other legions also demanded thela dis-charge in a similarly riolous manner, he disbanded them, witi,
sumivors to dram lots, then executed every tentii man, and sed theremainder on barley bread instead of the customary wheat ration. Company commanders found absent stom their posts were sentenced
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to death, like other ranks, and any tesser dereliction of duty earned them one of severat degrading punishments - such as being made tostand ali day long in front of generat headquarters, somelimes wearing
guished conduci in the field were valvabie silver and gold medallionsor collars, rather than mural crowns - so-called because traditionalty earned by the first man who scaled an enemy wall. These crowns heawarded as rarely as possibie and with due regard to merit: private Sol diers somelimes won them. Marcus Agrippa earned the right to flya blue ensim in recognition of his navat victory off Sicily. The onlyfghting men whom Augustus held ineligibie sor decorations were generals who had atready celebrated triumplis, even though theymight have fought beside him and shared in his victories: he expla edthat they thenaseives had the right to confer such awards at their discretion. The two fauits which he condemned most strongly in a mmilitary commander were haste and recHessness, and he constantly quoted such Greek proverbs as 'More haste, tess speed,' and 'Give mea Sase commander, not a rasti one,' and the Latin lag: ' est done is
quickly done.' It was a principi e of his that no campaigri or batileshould ever be fought unless more could clearly be gained by victorythan lost by deseat: and he would compare those who took great risks in the liope of gaining some smali advintage to a man who fishes with
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26. Among the public appotniments and honorars conferred on Augustus Defore Ee was ossicialty olὰ enough to receive them wercsome extraordinary ones granted his for Ese. At the age of twent Rhe created himself Consul, marched on Rome as though it were anenemy city, and sent messengers inead in the name of his army to demand that the appotniment should be confirmed. When the Senate hesitated to obey, one Cornelius, a company commander, opened his
do not make him Consul, this willi' Nine years later Augustus unde took lus second consulfhψ,η and his third after another two years. Haring held the nexi niue in sequence, he declined any more ser asmany as seVenteen years; then demanded a melfili term y and twoyears later a thirteenth - but oesy because he wanted to be holding thel ghest avat labie ossice when his adopted sons, Gaius and Lucius Caesar, successively came of age. He held his stath, sevenili, eighth, ninth, and tentii consulfhips for a fult year each, and the remainder fornine monilis, or sis, or four, or three - except for the second; that was
the occasion of his seving himself on the curule chala in front of the Temple of Capitoline Juppiter early on New Year's Day, and resigning his ossice to a substitute a few hours later. He was absent stomRome at Hae begining of his fourth consulfhip, whicli found him in Asia: of his fifth, whicli found him in Samos: and of his eightia indrilath, when he was visiting Tarragona. aT. For ten years Augustus remalaed a member of the Triumvirate commissioned to reorganige the Government, and though at first
opposing his colleagues' plan for a proscription, yet, Once this hadbeen decided upon, carried it out more ruthlessty than either of them. They osten retented under the pressure of political insuence, or Whenthe intended victims appealed for play; Augustus alone demanded
that no one Was to be spared, and even added to the list os proscribed persons the name of his guardian Gaius Torranus, who had been an aedile at the fame time as his fallier Octavius. Julius Saturninus has more to say On this subjeci: when the proscription was OVer and Marcus Lepidus, in an address to the s ouse, justi sed the severemeraures that had been tinen but encouraged the liope that greater lenien Would now be shown, since enough blood had been shed,
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Augustus spolie in a quite opposite sense. 'Ι consented to close the list,' he said, 'on condition that I should be allowed a seee haud in future.' Later, however, he emphasiged his regret for this rigorous altitude bycreating Titus Vinius Philopoemen a knight - Philopoemen had, itappears, secretly harboured his patron who was on the list of the proscribed. Under the Triumvirate, many of Augustus's acts won him the Zhatred of the people. Once, sor instance, while addressing a soldiers' assembly at whicli a crowd of civilians were also present, he saw a Roman knight named Pinarius transcribing his speech; and had himstabbed there and then as taking too close an interest in the proceed ings. Agala, a spites ut comment by Tedius Aser, Consul-Eleci, onSOme act of Augustus's, provoked him to such frightful threais that Aser committed sulci de by jumping from a height. There was also thecase of Quintus Gallius the praetor who, while paying Augustus his respecis, clutched a set of writing-tableis undemeath his robe. Augustus suspected that he had a sword, but dared not have himsearched ora the spol, for sear of being mistahen; so presently orderedan officer's par to drag him away from the tribunal. Gallius was tortured as is he were a flave: and though he consessed to nothing, Augustus himself tore out his eyes and sentenced his to death. In hisown account of the incident, however, Augustus records that Gallius asked sor an audience, attached his inexpectedly, and was removed
The commons awarded Augustus lis long tribunician power, anchonce or mice he cliose a colleague to sitare it with him for a fiv yearperiod. The Senate also voted him the task of supervising public morais and scrutini ing the laws another hselong appotniment. Thus, although he did not adopi the titie of Censor, he was privileged tohold a public census, and did so three times, assisted by a colleague onthe firsi and third occasions, though not the second. 28. Twice Augustus seriousty thought of restoring the Republican Constitution: immediately after the fali of Antony, when he remem-bered that Antony had osten accused him of being the one obstacleto suchachange; and again when he could not shahe offan exhaustingillaess. He then actuasy summoned the chies Oiscers of State, withthe rest of the Senate, to the Palace and gave them a festi ut account
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of the milita and financis state of the Empire. On reconsideration, however, he decided daal to divide the responsibilities of govemmentamong severat hands would be to jeopardiete not only his own Efe,
but nationes security; so he did nothing. The resulis Were almost asgood as his intentions, which he expressed from time to time and even
undations for the Govemment of Rome. May Ι also achieve cliereward to whicli I aspire: that of being known as the author of thebest possibie Constitution, and of carrying with me, when I die, theliope that these foundations will abide secure.' And, indeed, heachieved this success, having taken great troubie to prevent his political system stom Causing any individual distress. Aware that the City was architectural ly unworthy of her positionas capital of tiae Roman Empire, besides betag vulnerable to fre indri ver floods, Augustus so improVed her appearance that he could justiti
clothed in marbie ' He also used as much foresight as could have been expected in guarding against future disasters.
29. Among his larger public works three must be singled out formention: the Forum domSaled by the Temple of Avenging Mars: the Palatine Temple of Apollo: and the Temple of Juppiter the
Thunderer on the Capitoline Hill. He bulli his Forum because the twoalready in existence could not deat with the recent great increase in thenumber of law-sulis caused by a corresponding increase in population:
which was why he hurri edly opened it even besere the Temple of Mars had been completed. Public prosecutions and the casting of lois for jury service took place oesy in this Forum. Augustus Ead vowedio bulld the Temple of Mars during the Philippi campaign os ven-geance against Julius Caesar's assassis. He theres ore decreed that the Senate should meet here whenever declarations of war or clatis fortriumphs were considered: and that this should be both the startingpotat for military govemors, when escorted to their provinces, and the repository of ad triumphal tokens when they returned victoriouS.
The Temple of Apollo was erected in the part of his Palace to whicli, lihe soothsayers said, the God had drawn attention by having it struchwith ligkining. The colonnades running out froni it housed Latin and Greeli libraries; and in his declining years Augustus frequently heldmeetings of the Senate in the nave, or revised jury lisis there. A luchyeScape on a night march in Cantabria prompted him to bulld the
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Some of Augustus's public Works were undertaken in the names of relatives: such as the colonnade and basilica of his grandsons Gaius and Lucius: the color ades of his wise Livia and his sister Octavia: thetheatre of his nephew Marcellus. He also osten urgia leading citi gens to embellisti the Ci) with new public monuments or to restore indimproVe ancient Ones, according to their means. Many responded thus the Temple of Hercules and the Muses was raised by Marcius
Philippus: that os Diana by Lucius Cornificius: the Hail of Liber by
Asinius Pollio: the Temple of Saturn by Munatius Plancus: a theatre by Cornelius Balbus: an amphitheatre by Statilius Taurus: and avariet y of magnificent buit lings by Marcus Agrippa.3o. Augustus divided the City into districis and wards: placing the
districis under the cdntroTos magistrates annualty chosen by tot, and the wards under supervisors locatly elected. He organised stations of night watchmen to alarm the fire brigades: arid, as a precaution
an accumulation of rubbisti and narrowed by projecting houses. Also, he improved the approaches to the City: repaving the Flaminian y as far as Ariminium, at his own e ense, and Casing upon menwho had won triumplis to spend their priae money on putting theother mala roads into good condition. Furthermore, he restored ruined or burned temples, beauti*ing these and others with the most lavisti gi sis: for instance, a single don
31. Finalty, on assuming the office of Chies Pontiis vacated by the deam os Marcus Lepidus he could not bring himself to divest his
former colleague of it, even though he were an erile - Augustus collected ait the copies of Greek and Latin prophetic verse then current, the work of either anonymous or litue-known authors, and
burned more than two thousand. He hept oesy the Sibylline Books, and edited even these be re depositing them in two gilded cases under the pedestes of Palatine Apollo's image. Since officiat neglia gence had allowed the Calendar, reformed by Julius Caesar, to fallinio confusion, he put it straight again: and while do g so renamed
the monili of Sextilis 'August' although he had been bom in September), because it was during Sextilis that he had won his sest Con-
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subhip and his most decisive victories. He increased the priesthood in numbers and dignity, and in privileges, too, betag particularly generous to the College of Vestat Virgins. However, when the deathos a Virgin caused a vacancy in this College, and many citigens busilytried to keep their daughters' names off the Est os candidates one ofwhom would be chosen by tot - Augustus took a solemn oath that is any of his grand-daughters had been os eligibie age he would have proposed her. He also revived certain obsolescent rites and appotnimenis: theaugury of the Goddess Sasely, the office of Flamen Dialis sa priesthood of Juppiter), the Lupercalian Festivat, the Saecular Games, and the Cross-Roads Festius. But at the Lupercalia he forbade any boys tortin who had not yet shaved off their frst beards: and at the Saecular Games no young peopte might attend a night performance inlessa compaesed by an adult relative. The images of the Cross-Road godswere to be crowned twice a year, with wreatlis of spring and summer
Next to the Immortals, Augustus most honoured the memory of
those citigens who had raised the Roman peopte Dom smali begi nings to their present glory: which was why he restored many publicbuildings erected by men of this calibre, complete with their originaldedicatory inscriptions, and raised statues to them, wearing triumphaldress, in the twin colonnades of his Forum. Then he procla ed: 'This has been done to mae my fellow-citigens insist that both I while Ilive), and my successors, shali not fui below the standard set by those