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spected, and dissolved ali workmen's guilds except those that hadbeen established sor some time and were car ing on legitimatebusiness. Since the records of old debis to the Public Treasury hadbecome by far the most prositable means of blachmail, Augustus
cla s. The minimum age for enrolment in a jury was reduced Domthiri sive to thirty years: but, observing a generat moVement to
in turn one year's exemption, and closed ali couris throughout themonilis of November and December.
33. Augustus proved assiduous in his administration os justice, osten remaining in Court untd nightfati: and, is he happened to be well, would have his litter carried up to the tribunal. Sometimes heeven judged cases stom his sick-bed in the Palace. As a judge he was
both conscientious and lenient: once, to save a man who had
obviousty committed parricide from being se up in a sack - tha dog, a coch, a snae, and a monkey to typisy the four disserent vices that had ted his to this crime he is sald to have asked the accused 'I may assume, of course, that you did not kill your fallier 'On another occasion tiae witnesses to a forged will were punishableunder the Cornelian Law but, besides the usus two tableis for record- ing their verdici of fguit ' or 'not guil ', Augustus handed the jurors a third, for acquitiing any of the accused whose signature had, in their opinion, either been obtained by false pretences or attached in error. Every year he referred to the City Praetor cases in whicli Roman citigens had exerci sed their right os appes; foreigners' appeals
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TO ΤΗΕ ΤWELVE CAESAR Swould be handled by particular e Consuls whom he had appo tedio protect nationals of the proVince concerned. I3 di The existing laws that Augustus revised, and the new ones thath eclacted, deali, among other matters, Willi extraVagance, adultery, unchastity, bribery, and the encouragement of marriage in the Sen toris and Equestrian Orders. His marriage law being more tig rousty framed than the others, he found himself unable to mine iteflective because of an open revolt against severat of iis clauses. Hewas there re obliged to withdraw or amend certain penalties exacted for a fallure to marry; to incretae the rewards he offered for large families: and to allow a widow, or widower, three years' grace besere haring to marry again. Even this did not satis' the knights, who demonstrated against the law at a public entertariment, demandingita repeat: whereupon Augustus sent for the children whom his
grand-daughter Agrippina had borne to Germanicus, and publiclydisplayed them, some sitiing on his own Enee, the rest on their father's - and made it quite clear by his affectionale looks and gestures that it would not be at ali a bad thing is the knighis imitated thatyoung man's eXample. When he then discovered that bachelors were gening betrothed to litile giris, whicli meant postponing the responsubilities offatherhood, and that married men were frequently changingtheir wives, he dealt with these evasions of the law by shortening the permissi bie period belween betroibal and marriage, and by limitingilie number of lawful divorces. 3 5. The Senatorial Order now numbered more than I,OOO persons, some of whom mere popularly known as the 'Orcus Men'. This was reatly a name for eX-flaves freed in the masters' wips, but bad come todescribe senators who had bribed or otherwise influenced MarhAntony to inrol them in the Order on a pretence that Julius Caesar, be re he died, had chosen them for tius honour. The sight of this sadrabbie, wholly unworthy of office, decided Augustus to restore theorder to iis former sige and repute by two new acts of e Olment. Flast, each member was allowed to nominate one other; then Augustus and Agrippa together reviewed the list and announced theirown choice. When Augustus presided on tius second occasion he issaid to have worn a sword and a fleel corsei et beneath his tunic, withten burly senatorial frien& crowding around him. According to Cremutius Cordus, uae senators were not even isten permitted toapproacti Augustus's chala, eXcept singly and after the folds of their
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TIrobes had been caresully searched. Though shaming some of theminio resignation, he did not deny them the right to wear senatorial
ine Order's public banquela. He then encouraged inose selected forsemice to a more conscientious and less inconvenient) discliarge of their duties, by ruling that each member should offer incense and wineat the altar of whatever temple had been selected for a meeting: that such meetings should not be held more than twice a monili - at thebegi ing and in the middie - and that, during September ind
were dra by tot to provide a quorum for the passing of decrees. He also arranged that privy councissors should be chosen by tot eve sita monilis, their duty being to study the drasits of bills which would later be laid besere the House as a whole. During debates of critical
importance Augustus sitetved the custom os cassing on members inorder of seniority, and instoad singled out speahers arbitrarily; this was intended to miae ali present take an aleri interest in proceedingsand feel responsible for constructive thouit, instead os merely risingio remark: 'I agree with the last speiaers.' 36. Among Augustus's other innovations were: a ban on the publication os Proceiatum g the Senam;λ a statutory intervat be een the conclusion of City magistracies and their holders' departure toappotatments abroad; a fXed mese-and-tent allowance to provincialgoVernors, replacing the system by whicli they contracted for these necessities and charged Hiem to the Public Treasury; the transferetice of the Treas y from the controi of City quaestors to that os e praetors Or praetors; and tiae resing that a Board of Ten, instead of
the einquaestors, should convoke the so called Centumviral Court an ancient tribunal, now consisting of 18o members, that met in the
created new offices dealing with the vpkeep of public bulldings, roadsand aqueducis; the clearing of the Tiber channei: and the distributionos grain to the people - also a Board of Three for choosing ne
senators, and another for inspecting the troops of lanights, wheneverthis was needed. He also revived the long obsolete custom os appota ing Censors; increased the number of praetori; and requested notone colleague but two whenever he held a consul ship. The Senate,
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however, refused this last plea: everyone shouting that it was sufficient detraction Dom his supreme dignity to acknowledge even a single colleague. 38. Augustus silowed eques generosity in recognizing strategic skill, by letting fuit triumphs be voted to more stan thirty of this generais, and triumphat regalia to an even larger number. Senators' sons were now encouraged to familiariete themselves with . the administration; they might wear purple-striped gowns immediately upon coming of age and attend meetings of the House. Whcntheir military careers begata, they were not meret g en coloneicies in regular legions, but the command of cavalry squadrons; and Augustus usualty appotnted two to the command of each squadron,inus ensuring that no senior officer lached experience in this arm of
He frequently inspected the troops of knighis, and revived the long- rgoiten custom of mahing them ride in procession; yet he withdre the spectators' right of challen ging knighis to dismount wbile theparade mas in progress; and those who were so old or infirm that theywould look ridiculous, is they took pari, might now send their ride
iras mounts to the starting potat and report to Augustus on ot. Later, si linighis over thiri fiue years of age who did not wish toretain thela chargers, were excused the embarrassment of publiclysurrendering them. 39. With the assistance of ten senators, Augustus cross-eXaminedevery hnight on his persones affairs. Some, whose lives proved tohave been scandalous, were punished; others were degraded: but in most cases he was content to reprimand culpriis with greater or tessseverity. The luchiest were those whom he obliged merely to takethe tableis handed them, and read his censure in silence where theystood. ights who had borrowed money at a low rate os interest, inorder to invest it at a higher, earned Augustus's particular displeraure. o. E insuffcient candidates of the required senatoris rank presented themselves for election as tribunes of the people, Augustus nominated knighis to fili the vacancies; but allowed them, when their term os ossice had expired, either to remala members of the Equestrian Order or to become senators, whichever they preferred. Sincemany ights h ad lost so muta money during the Civit Wars thatthey no longer possessed the proper qualification of their rank, and there re refrained stom taking their seais in the fourteen rows
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reserved sor the Order at the Circus, he announced that they were notliable to punishment under the law governing theatres - whicli protected anyone who had orace been a linight, or who was a knight's son. Augustus revised the roti os citigens, ward by ward; and tried toobviate the frequent interruptions of their trades or businesses whichthe public grata-distribution entassed, by handing out licheis, three times a year, valid for a four monilis' supply: but was implored toresume the former custom os monthly distributions, and consented.
He also revived the traditiones privilege of electing ali the City magistrates, not merely half of them he himself had been nominating theremat der), and attempted to suppress bribery by the imposition ofvarious penalties; besides distributing on Election Day a bo ty osten gold pieces stom tiae Prio Purse to every member both of the
Fabian tribe - the Octavian fami ly were Fabians - and of the Scapti antribe, whicli included the Julians. His object was to protect thecandidates against demands for further emoluments. Augustus thought it most important not to let the native Romanstock be tacited with foretgn or servile blood, and was there re very unwilling to create new Roman citi gens, or to permit the manumission os more than a limited number of flaves. Once, when
Tiberius requested that a Greek dependant of his should be granted the citi etensi ip, Augustus wrote bach that he could not assent inlessthe man put in a personat appearance and convinced him that he was worthy of the honour. When Livia made the fame request for a Gaulfrom a tributa province, Augustus turned ii do , saying that hewould do no more than exempt tile fellow from tribute I woulgfar rather sorseit whatever he may owe the Prio Purse than cheapenthe value of the Roman citi genship.' Not oesy did he mahe it extremely difficult for flaves to be freed, and stili more difficult for themto attain fuit independence, by strictly regulating the number, conditiora, and status of Deedmen; but he resed that no flave who had everbeen in irons or subjected to torture could become a citi eten, eVenaster the most honourable form os manumission. Augustus set himself to revive the ancient Roman dress and once,
'Behold them, conquerors of tho worid, ali clad in Roman go si 'and instructed the aediles that no one should ever agata be admitted
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I. His generosity to ali classes was displayed on many occasions. For instance, when he brought die treasures of the Ptolemi es to Rome at his Alexandrian triumph, so much casti passed into private hands that the interest rate on loans dropped sharply, while res estate
values soared. Later, he made it a rese that whenever estates were
confiscaled and the funds realized by their sale exceeded his require-menis, he would grant interes free loans for taed periods to anyone who could offer securi for twice the amount. The property quali fi
pie es, and is any member of the Order found that the value of hisestate feli stiori of this, Augustus would mahe up the deficit from the
mae them a money present, he would now tighten his purs strings. Augustus silowed eques digesty and strengin os character on anossieroccasion when, after amouncing a distribution os largesse, he found
that the list os citi gens had been swelled by a considerable number of recently Deed flaves. He gave out that those to whom he had promised nothing were entilled to nothing, and that he refused toincrease the total sum: thus the original beneficiaries must be content in tess. In one period os exceptional scarcit y lie found it impossibieto cope with the public distress excepi by eXpelling every uselessmouth Dom the City, such as the flaves in the flave-mar et, si members of gladiatorial schooli, ali foret gn residents with the ce'
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tion os physicians and teachers, and a liuge crowd of housinold- flaves. He writes that when at last the grata supply improved: 'Ι hada good miud to discontinue permanently the supply of grain to the City, reliance On which had discouraged Italian agriculture: butrefrainta because some politician would be bound one day to revive the dole as a means os ingratiating himself with the people.' Never-theless, in his handi ing of the od problem he now began to considerthe interesis of fariners and corn merclianis as much as the needs of city dwellers. 43. None of Augustus's predecessors had ever provided so many, so different, or such splendid public shows. He records the present tion offour Games in his own name and twenty-three in the names of Other City magistrates who were either absent or could not afford thee ense. Sometimes plays were shown in ali the various City districis, and on severat stages, the actors speiaing the appropriate locat langvage; and gladiators fought not only in the Forum or the Amphia theatre, but in the Circus and Enclosure as weli: or the show might,on the contra , be limited to a single wild-beast hunt. He also heldathletic competitions in the Campus Martius, for which he put upiters of wooden seais: and dug an artificiat lake beside the Tiber, Where the present Caesarean Grove stands, for a mock se batile. Onthese occasions he posted guards in different paris of the City to pre-vent rumans froni turning the emptiness of the streeta to their own advantage. Chariot races and ot races took place in the Circus, and among those who h ted the wild beasts were severat volunteers of
distinguished family. Augustus also ordered frequent performances of the Troy Game k by two troops, of older and younger boys; it was an admirabie tradition, he held, that the scions os nobie houses shouldmiae their public debui in this way. When hille Gaius Nonius Asprenas feli frona his horse at one performance and brohe a leg, Augustus com rted him with a goiden torque and the hereditarysurname of 'Torquatus'. Soon afterwards, however, he discontinuedine Troy Game, because Asinius Pollio the orator attached it bitterly in the House: his grandson, Aeserninus, haring broken a leg too. Even Roman knighis somelimes took part in stage plays and gladiatoris stlows untd a Senatorial decree put an end to the practice. Aster this, no person of good family appeared in any show, with the exception of a young man named Lycius; he was a dwarc less than
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two feet tali and weighing only 17 lb but had a tremendous voice. At one of the Games Augustus allowed the peopte a sight of the frstgroup of Parthian hostages ever sent to Rome by leading them do the midese of the arena and seating them two rows belliud himselfAnd whenever a strange or remukable animal was brought to the City, he used to exhibit it in some Convenient place on days when nopublic shows were betag given: for instance, a rhinoceros in the Enclosure: a tiger on the stage of the Theatre; and a serpent nearlynlaety feet long in front of the Comitium, where popular assemblies were held. Once Augustus happened to be is on the day that he had vowed tol old Games in the Circus, and was obliged to lead the sacred proces sion lying in a litter: and when he opened the Games celebrating the dedication os Marcellus's Theatre, and sat down in his chala os state, it gave way and sent him spr ling on his bach. A panic started in the Theatre during a public performance in honour of Gaius and Lucius: the audience Dared that the walis might collapse. Augustus, finding that he could do nothing else to pacise or reassure them, test his omnbox and sat in what seemed to be the most threatened part of the
44. He issued speciat regulations to prevent the di sorderly and haphagard system by whicli spectators secured seats for these shows: having been outraged by the insuli to a senator who, on entering thecrowded theatre at Puteoli, was not offered a seat by a single member of the audience. The consequent Senatorial decree provided that atevery public persormance, whereuer held, the front row of statis mustbe reserved for senators. At Rome, Augustus Would not admit theambassadors of independent or essed hingdoms to seus in theorchestra, on learning that some were mere freedmen. O iner reses of his included the separation os soldiers Dom civilians; the assigmentos special seata to married commoners, to boys not yet come of age, and, close by, to their tutors; and a ban on the wearing of dark cloias, excepi in the bach rows. Also, whereas men and women had hitherio always sat together, Augustus confined women to the bach rows evenat gladiatoris stlows: the oesy ones exempt Dom this rese being the Vestat Virgis, for whom separate accommodation was provided, facing the praetor's tribunal. No women at ali were allowed to wit-ness the athletic contests; indeed, when the audience clamoured at the Games for a speciat boring match to celebrate his appotniment as
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Chies Pontilis Augustus postponed this untii early the neXt moriang, and issued a proclamation to the effect that it was the Chies Ponthi 's destre that women should not attend the Theatre besore ten
untii the show had been running sor severat hours, or even sor a dayor more; but always eXcused his absences and appo ted a substitute president. Once in his seat, however, he walched the proceedings
intently: et ther to avoid the bad reputation earned by Julius Caesar for reading letters or petitions, and answering them, during such performances, or just to ei oy the fun, as he frankly admitted doing. This e oyment ted him to offer special priges at Games provided by
others, or give the victors valvabie presenis from the Prio Purse: and he never fassed to reward, according to their meriis, the competitorsin any Greek theatrices contests that he attended. His clites delight wasto watch boring, particularly when the figliters were Italians - and not meret y professionat bovis, in which he osten used to pit Italians against Greelis, but stogging matches between untrained roughs in narrow City alleys. To be bries: Augustus honoured ali sores of professionat ente lainers by his friendly interest in them; maintained, and even increased,
ille privileges e oyed by athletes: ba ed gladiatorial contesta is thodesealed figliter were sorbidden to plead for mercy: and amended anancient law empowering magistrates to punish stag players whereverand whenever they pleased - so that they were now competent to deal only with misdemeanours committed at games or theatrical per- formances. Nevertheless, he insisted on a meticulous observince of
regulations during wresiling matches and gladiatorial contests: and was exceedigly strict in checking the licentious bellaviour os stag players. When he heard that Stephanio, a Roman actor, went aboud
attended by a page-boy who was reatly a married woman with herhala cropped, he had bim flogged through ali the three theatres - thoseos Pompey, Balbus, and Marcellus - and then exiled. Acting on a praetor's complaint, he had a comedian named Hylas publiclyscourged in the hali of his own residelice: and expelled Pylades notonly from Rome, but froni Italy too, because when a spectator
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stareed to hiss, he called the attention of the whole audience to hi m th an obscene movenient of his middie finger. 46. Aster thus improving and reorganizing Rome, Augustus creased the population of Italy by personalty found g twent eight Veteran colonies. He also supplied comtry towns with municipalbugdings and revenues: and even gave them, to some degree at least, privileges and honours equat ling those enjoyed by the City of Rome. ιδ lus was done by granting the members of each locat senate the rightto vote sor candidates in the City Elections: their ballois were to beplaced in sealed containers and counted at Rome on polling day. Tomaintain the number of ighis he allowed any to fhip to nominate
men capable of taking up suta senior Army Commands as were reserved for the Equestrian Order: and, to encourage the birtitarate of the Roman commons, offered a boun of ten gold pieces for every legitimate son or daughter whom a citigen could produce, on histours of the City wards. 47. Augustus hept for himself ali the more vigorous proVinces inose that could not be fas ely administered by an annual governor and nominated his own imperiat procurators: the remainder went toproconsuis Chosen by tot. Vet, as occasion arose, he would change the status os provinces Dom imperis to senatoriat, or contrariwise, and paid frequent visits to either fori. Finding that certain cit states which had treati es of alliance with Rome were ruining themselves
through political irresponsibili , he took away their independence: but also granted subsidies to others crippled by public debis, rebullisome cities which had been devastated by earlhquakes, and even arded fuit citigenship to states that could show a record of Lithfulservice in the Roman cause. So far as I know, Augustus inspected every province of the Empire, excepi Sardinia and Nortii Africa, and would have toured these, too, aster his deseat of Sextus Pompey in Sicily, had not a sequence of gales prevented his from sat ling; later, he had no particular reason, nor any opportunity, for visiting either
ties of friendship or intermuri age, which he was never Slow to pro- pose. Nor did he treat them other se than as imperiat functionaries,sbowing them ali consideration and finding guardians for those who