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learning of the Greelis, but es cian in the wo depariments of Rhetori an Philosophy, then losely connected oroasterhardi distinguished. e nolintra the societ os leamed Greelis, ut pent considerable time in stud a Rhodes and Athens, hic hin come o meret in achoo os Greem', a Thucydides malles Pericles ali her, hut the schoes of the civiliae Morid. When, byaeason os politica uoubles, he was forcedri retire is private lila, h began to carrrout a great planior interpreting the hest philosophica writings of the Greelis to his sello countrymen. For his or his libera vie. M a New Academi peculiari fitte him. His usual method was totali one or two letaing Gree worksin the subject Wit .hlchhe was dealing, and to represent laeely in his oWncla Nam their subject alter, introducing episodes and illustrations of his own. Η thus presente to the Romans in theiriwn longue themostsignificant portions of the Gree Philosophy and in his riti sthere has come doWn to us much, especiali of the ΡωNArist telia Philosophy, that was doomed is oblivio in the original Greeli But further tha this to Cicero more than to any other Roman is due the formationis a Latin philosophicat vocabulum by Whic the language Was enriche an fitte so the pari ithas since alienos the angvage of the Learned. Whil onman minis Cicero' - vie. ca haesimbe determined Mithperfeci exactness, the exalteo sentimenta and the exquisite liter. My finis of his philosophicat writius have alWays Won admiration and through them e has exerte no mali influenc oncte literature and life of modern times.
λ o juve righu es Cicero it Ont necessar to refer for e must e remembered that he nas ample to the weight inven to thea politician nimis accident his opinion es Cicero in the heated whiae natura bent nactouard political discussion of the sim literature laenin and aeventeenth centurierus Maeo the truth of this it sa
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During the whole of an exceptionalisbus public lis cicera devoted his spare momentario readin and to the society of theleamed. Aster his exile in 38 and 7 B. C. his politica career, excepi foris bries perio jus besore his death, Was ver, and itis at this time that his periodis great literar activit Mona. Incis e produce the wor De Oratore, in f the De Re Pul Iica, an in f the De Leriams, at three orks, accordincto ancient ideas, entilled is an a philosophicat. From 3 to 46 B. C., Wing firstrio his absence in Cilicia, thento the civit troubles, Cicero almost eased to write. ut in thelatteraea he was reconciled with Caesar, and a the Senate indlaw couris,ere close against him on his refusal to compromise his political principies, heletook himself,it greate devotionthan everrio literature. The firsi or Writte in o. the Hortensius, o De miraso M. now lost. It was founde on alost dialogue es Aristolle, and set forin the Qvantage of stud'ing Philosophy. During the fame ea Cicero complete severat oratorical Works the Partitiones Oratoriae, the Brutus, orve Garis Oratoribus, and the Orator, ali of whic are extant. Eari in s Cicero os his helove claughter ullia. me passe the whole year in retirement tryin to oothe his mei hy incessant, iting. In quic succession appeared De Consolatione, an attemptrio appi philosophyrio the mitig tionis his own sorromand that os othera; Academica, an expositio of the Ne Academi Philosophy, advocatin probabiliu raster inan certaintra therioundation
De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, criticising the oat prominent vie s entertained concerning Ethics; Dissutationes Tusculanare, treatin es certain condition essemiliario moralit andi pineas; Almost every Manc es learn that ne branc es Philosoph3lng was ranked unde the head of as Geography. Philosophy Strabo even claimed
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De Nasura verarum, an examinationis the principia theorim reording the nature and poWer of the wds; Cato Maior, o old age Laelius, o mendship; De Faso, discussing Fate an Fre Wili; Par Oxa, a book settinisori certain remata te vie. of the Stoica; De O iis, a realiae o practica ethim, the application os morat principis to the question an dissiculties of ordinaryllis. These Works, writte mostly in Dand 44 are, except the De Cons. Atili extant. the lis may boadded also the work of a rhetorical nature, such as the Tosica an De Ostiano Genere Dicenaei and somerios philosophica books, such as De Gloria. Eve though allowance e made so the fac that Cicero Wasgiving in Latin the substance of Greeli books Wit whichaeaadbeen lamilia homioyhood, the mentes vigor an hierar po erexhibite is his series of Works appea prodigious hen e conside their great compas an variet and the generali high finis of thei style. Referances. - For a fuller account of Cicero' philosophicalviews and writings consul Ritter, mistor of Ancient Philos
M4 deusset, Histor o Roman Literature ' Vol. I, DI 72 ιυρ. Cruttwell, Histor of Roman Literature', h. II. Pari I,Ch. Cicero', by Collins, in Ancient Classiccior EnglishReaderS, Ch Io, et seq. also the Introduction to Reid' editiones the Academica, and the account of Cicero is Pros Ramsayin Smithys Dictionarnos Biograph and ythology. The most attractive biograph o Cicero in Englisti is that by Forsyth. That by Troilope is able but quite partisan. O the philosophy,
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i. ORIGIN ANDAE PR. I. Date anae circumstances of Composis .m date at whic the Cato aio was Writte cante deter mine Mith sinos perfeci exactness. A mentio in Cicero' Work entille De Divinatione shows that the Cato aior precede that or hy a hori time. The De Divinatione Was ritie alter the assassination os Caesar, that is, after the Isthoi arch in theaea M. Again the Calomaior is mentionedas a recent,or in three letters addresse by Cicero to Atticus. The earlies of these letters a writte on or bout thera athos an μ' e hali haesi ere, theresore is, assume that
Cicero composed the Cato aior in April of the ea M. Thisayees also Mith light indications in the wor itself. In the dedicator introductio Cicero spealis foroubles ei ingheavit on himself an Atticus.' Any one ho read the lebter to Atticus despalched in April, 44, ill have litile oubtthat the troubles inte at are the apprehension a to thecourse of Antonius, hom hom Cicero ad personali sommthin in eis. Atticus as using at the influence e could bring to bearis Antonius in orde to secure Cicero' sala ;
a 3 inseriectus est nuper liber a Sommerbrod assumes, in theis quem ad nostrum Atticum de intervat of composing the Desenereus misimus argument Divinatione. The word in a, can e founde on the word is, of that mork quoniam de re puruseriareus es , ver hic the edi I a consuli coerti sumus etc.
Se 2, 23. began to compose his Philippic
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nence Cicero' care is moid in the dedicatio an ut theogues possibi allusion to politica. ad that introductionbeen ritte helare Caesar' death, we hould have ad plain allusions as in the prooemia os the Ac emica, the De Finctus, in Tusculan Dissutations and the De Natura Deorum in Caesar' dictatorship. The time, in os desperate gloom sor Cicero. hesdownis of the old constitution ad verwhelmed hi m With sorro , an his ries oviburs of o ove Caesar' deat hae been quichi succeede by disgus an alam a the proceedings es Antonius. heraee Wound caused by his aughter' death nas stili unhealed. It is eas to calch in the Cato aior some echoes of his ole for her. When it is sale that os ali Cato'stilles to admiratio none is higher than the fortitude heishowed in earing the deat of his son, the writer is thinhing of thestraret he himself ha been uin against a like sono sormore than a year past; and When Cato expresses his firm convictio that he wil meet his hil heyon the grave, , canse Cicero's Wn eamin for reunion it his deepi loved
Tullia. a. Gree Murces. At Cicero' philosophica an rhetorica writinga ere confessedlyriounde more reses o Gree originals. The stores hom hic he principalindre in ritin the Cato aior areclearly indicate in severa paris of the work. assages DomXenophon's Oeconomicus are translate in Chapter I and 22. In Chapter arundo there is a close imitatio of the conversation belween Socrates an Cephalus at the heginning o Plato's publie, Whil in Chapter a is reproduce one of the ost
It is perhaps no a mere acci In arch, 45. dent that the pro es of L. Brutus Ia. in I seranda ναίκω is mentione in εἰ M. 73. here a be a reference rae p. iii above. to the latest Brutus Who his laeed
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strivingsortions of the Maedo, a W73 B, 78 o. The leRof the divine origi an destin of the humanisoul contained in the passage frum the maeae is rendered by Cicero in many of his ores, and was et olim it quite a religious servorand sincerity. Besides these instances os species indebisdnes Cicero, incomposing the Cato Maior, a no doub unde obligations of more generatain to the Greelis. The formis the dialogueis Greeli, an Aristotelia rather than Platonici But further,it is highi probable that Cicero κω to som particula Greeli dialogue o Oid Ag the generat utline of the argument hathere brings for ard. any of the Gree illustrative allusions may have had the fame origin though in many cases Romanillustrations mus have been substitute for Greek Whether the dialogue is Aristo Cius, cursorii mentione in the Cato Μaior, Wa at allised by Cicero orio it is impossibi is determine.
The Cato aior is a popular essa in Ethics, applying the principies of philosophyrio the alleviationis one of lik's hie
burdens, old age. In ancient times, when philosophy formed thereal and oes religion of the educate class, themes like this eredeememto afforma orthy employment for the pens evenis thegreates philosophers. Such Asays forme the ni substitute the ancients ad formur Sermons There an emo doub os Cicero' sincerit when e says that in argumenta e seis
In the notes exac references have been ritten Theophrastus illae given to the places in the and Demetrius Phalereus, ither original,here the ther passage or both of hic Cicero might mentione may be found have sed. ne passage in 167, Particulari the firs book of facilius in morbos . . . emistius -- the Tuscutantis uuions the De ramur, is supposed by many o publiea, and the Laelius have been imitate hom Hippo- See 4, helo . crates, hut the resemblance is
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fori in the treasse had given him real comsori, and the opem ing ord of the dedication hoW that he meant and ope in administer the fame comsorio his frien Atticus, ho incleeaacknowledged the benefit e derive Domine Mork. When Cicero wrote the reatis he was himself SixW-tW year os age, .hil his stiend was three eam vider. e malis, theresere, rather euphemisticatly When e sva that his purpos is toli te the trouble es anil age hicli is alaeady clos achand, or at ali evenis approaching. But in addition to the mam ethica pur se there Was, as in many o Cicero's Works, a distinc politica pumose Hedestre to stimulate in his eadem an admiratio sor What heremesedis the olde age of Roma politica, the era of the Punic Wars, an to do this by aking the contrast belween that age and his own appea a striking a possibie. A like oublepumose is apparent throughout the De Re Publica, here Asricanus the ounge is the hie personage, and in the treatis onFriendsbip where Laelius is the centra figure. For the dialogue on id Agem Porcius Cato the Censor is selecte asthe principat speaker for Wo reasons first, ecause he was renowne for the vigor of min and Odyae displayed in ad--ncedatis: an secondly because in him ere conspicuoustyexhibite the serious simplicit' me unswervin adherence toprincipie, and the self-sacrificing patriotism hic were thesideat Roma virlues, and whic Cicero could notiund among the pol,licians of his time. 4. Form anae Languam.
The Cato aior, like mos o Cicero' philosophicat, itings, is cast in the formis a dialogue Among the ancient the di
iraeea a se old age in a favor te light, See Au in II, 3; 6, 3 I; e light Aristo Cius for giving
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Iogue mas a common rhetorica device, specialty in the presentationi abstruse subjecis. The introductionis character toconduci the discussio gave vividnes an clearnes to the umsolding of the argument, a Meli as 'in os dramatic interest toine production. In the Cato Maior and the Laelius, a gener- Hly, Cicero followed the planis Aristocle's dialogues no-losqrather than that of the dialogum os Plato. In the forme there
Was more os exposition and les of discussion than in the lauer; one person state his te si some question, and the company in attendance ovi made occasiona remarks Without attemptingis debat the question In the lauer although one person, So rates, is vermhere prominent, ther are continuali drawn into the discussions and there is a quic interchange of question and answer. The Aristotelia form Was belle ad te is Cicero' pumoses than the Platonic the progress of the inmment a les interrupted, and thus euer opportunit for asymmetrica develoment of the theme as a med. Then, iso the forme Mas more popular. The style of Aristocles' adbeen imitate by heophrastus an many the writer do nto Cicero' time, hile that o Plato ad found arvi any
The editor of the Cato aior have generali assume stat Cicero attempte in ove an antique coloring to the dictionis the dialogue in orde to remino reaclers of Cato' own style. Itis ni necessar to reis a page o tW of Cato's De Re Rusticato have this illusion dispelled. The oninthius actualj alleged tot archaism are I the se os deponent participies a P
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notes illisuppi a refutationis the allegation That Ciceroahould attemptrio rite in any style but hia Wncia exceedinglyimprobabis.
e conversatio is supposed to tali place etween Cato, Scipio Africanus the ounger, an Laelius, in the ear besore Cato' deam, i. e. Is B. C. When e mas in his ighty-fourthyear, Scipio Minya utos an Laelius a se aears older. I. Cato. . Porcius Cato a bor in 34 B. C.' at theancientiati tow of Tusculum Litile sanow of his familyexcepi that it Mas plebeian, an possesse a amat patrimony in the territor of the Sabines, clos to the famis M'. Curius Dentatus, ne of Cato' great heroes an modela. The eada of the family, o far a memor extended, ad distinguished themselves as ouo Warrior an hard sarmem Among the Sabines, Who even doWn to the times of the Empire,ere lamedis simplicit os manners and the practice of at the sternerririues, Cato passe thos portions of his life hic Were not cupie Wit busines of state. From his earlies Mys heloiled in his o. fields, and contente himself,it the ardest rusti liis.' et even in his Ohood Cato mus have passed
intervat a Rome, an seen omething of the great statesmen an generat of the time. Η seem to have received henmung a thorouo an education a Was possibi Without learning Gree rauch an education a was iste obtained oni in thecapital me gre u to anhood in the comparativel quiet ε 3 suameum mannum et me himselffvs Festus, p. 28I
octomesimum. Cf. Lael. II memim ei ia- a principio in farrimonia Cruonem ante quam est mortuus aque in duruis isque Adustria mecum et cum Scissione diraerere rennem adulescentiam, abstinui agro etc. colendo saxis asinis silicibus re,
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perio belween the firs and the second uni Mars the mos excitin event of his ou er ears mus have been the destructio a Clastidium os the vas hordes o Celta ho adswept ove the orther hau es Italy, almost isti reac es
Cato,as of the age sor militar service bout in time of thebatile of Lahe Trasimenus, and entere me arm then a a common soldier. The first expedition in hic heris definitelysai to have taken parcis thatis Q. Fabius Maximus Cunctator against Hannibal in Campania, in I 4. This Roman commander Was a man entiret after Cato' heari, andie me oneos his modet in public lite. Besore an during the early years of his soldier' life Cato
succeede in inning ome reputatio as an orator, haring practised firs in the provinciat couris nea his home, an afte watas a Rome. This reputatio as et achis great force of character procured for him a powersul life-long friend and patron, Μ. Valerius Flaccus, a statesma of the old Roman conservativm
democrati schoes of politics, the eade os,hich a Fabius Cunctator Throuo the influence of Flaccus, possibi With theia es Fabius, Cato ecam militar tribune, an serve Minthat ran under arcellus in Sicily unde Fabius again a thocaptureis Tarentum in o ' and unde C. Claudius Nero at thebatue of themetaurus, here e contribute materiali to that great victory. In Cato began his politica career With in quaestorinip. Ache was a novus homo and a manis smal private means, it Wasi Amali distinctio that he had force his anto ossice in Rut C. I; Cat. Μ. I8, 32 himself the ille of the Roman
Cato Umself ap. est. s. v. orae Demosthenes narius says quid mihi re si non εἰ ro. ero stipendia in ordine omnia orae In DI, Cicero Mahes thenarius meruissem se rei quaestorshi sal in os, ut he Dio refers to the election, o to the Ι Plutarch may be trusted actualoea es ossice. Cato at the age of 3o had won for