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Crete a conquere in 7 . c. by Q. Metellus, and as annexed, accordin t Some, to Cyrene, accordin to thers, o Macedonia. A.' Zumpi hold the alter te. C. E. a. 87-I89, an a o). p. Αd Fam 8 8 8 note. 4. Thus it ill e noticed that hile the extent of the Romandominion was imposing the frontie was almos everywhere ill- defined, and the communications insecure. Transalpine Gaul as exposed togreat ange sto arme migrations suci a thos of the Cimbri and Teutones in Io6 B. c., o Ariovistus and the Suevi in I, and of the Helvetii omewhat later. In Spain the mos prosperous theatre os Roman colonigation the work of conquest Was by n mean completed. The frontieris Macedonia a threatene by norther tribes, ii aster-ward combine into the formidabie and well-organige hingdom os Dacia. In the East, Mithridates a not et subdued an even the subsequent deseat of his son-in-la Tigranes ni made the Parthian monarchyis the Arsacidae the more sormidabie. But these angers ere infinitet aggravate by three viis sor hichthe Roman overnment a directi or indirecti responsible the mis-government of the provinces the excessive developmen o flave culti-vatio in Italy and the spread os pirac in the Mediterranean Mithridates, Sertorius, an aster ard Catiline, relied in no mali degre onme discontentis the provincials Spartacus, illi an arm os flaves and gladiators, ravage Ital sor early three ear 73-7 B. c.), and the pirates, in spite os partia reverses, ere long master of the Mediterranean, and even threatened the coasis os centra Italy. Seldom ad the Roman empire been in greater ange than whenthese corsairs heptrum communication etWeen the panisl insurgents an Mithridates, and encourage the revolte flaves in Italy It was a mos fortunate circumstanc so Rome that, hen the insurrectio os Spartacus egan the war illi Sertorius ad passe iis mos critical
66 B. c. in Cilicia, here e received the neWs of the extende powers conserre upon hi by the la os Manilius supra, 'in He levied a considerable orce, and with it et Lucullus a Danalay, in Galatia, Where aster a arm discussion, he malgamate that generat' sorces wit his own Besore the lose of the year he had completet deseated Mithridates a Nicopolis, and riven him acros the Phasis, hile Tigranes Sued sor eace, and obtaine it o payin a large sum os money, and surrendering ali his OSSession eXcept Armenia Proper. The close of 66, and nearly the whole of 65, were occupie&With success-sul campaigns against the Albanians and Iberians the loseis 65, and the beginning of 64, illi the suppressionis the las efforis at resistance in Pontus. Pompenthen marched fouthWards, o complete the conquestis Syria whicli some of his ossicersiadiegun. y the end of 63 B c. the Romansovereignty a completet eStablished there, and Pompentheniegan toorganige his conqueStS. Wo ne provinces, Syria an Crete , ereformed three olde ones Asia Bithynia, and Cilicia, ere reconstituted. Bithynia received part os Pontus the ne province of Cilicia comprised besides Cilicia proper, hicli ad been o by Pompey, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Isauria Lycaonia, and partis Phrygia. Pompen undedmany towns in Cilicia, Cappadocia, an elseWhere, and gave a corporate existence to thers. Many of the captive pirates ere setile in these
He had also in 63 .c. deseated hedews unde Aristobulus, and ahenJerusalem, but e di no reduce Judaea to the conditionis a Roman province, referring to leaVe iis overnmento Hyrcanus, a rival os AristobulUS. Meanwhile, Mithridates trie to organige means os resistanc in the Tauric Chersonese, but his Suspicious crueit caused a revolt headed by his son Pharnaces, andae died by his own handri 63 .c Thus, toWard the en os 3 .c., Pompe had complete his tash. The Parthians ere probabi indignant at the advanc os the Romanpower but showedis disposition to egi hostilities. Cp. Veli. a. 33;
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1. T. Pomponius Atticus a bor apparently bout Io B.α, and consequently Wa about three years olde than Cicero. He studied illi Cicero, C. Marius the Ounger, and L. Torquatus, the consulis 65. Helent mone to C. Marius and others, to helinthem in scaping rom Italy. About 86 or 85 apparenti hecies Rome, an Stayed Wenty-tW year at
Athens, here his liberalit made im generali popular, and the rightsos citigenship were flare hi by the Athenians Atticus decline the offer, though Cicero speah os the Athenians as his sello citigens When Sulla visited Athenii 84 .c. he was much please With Atticus, who declined however, o solio-him to Italy. In 79 .c. Cicero ento Athens, and the wo riend sistene incompan to Antiochus, Phaedrus, and Zeno The tengili os time hicli Atticus pentini Athens may account for his cognomen He returne to Rome in kB. c. at Cicero' requeSt, tosupportat in his canuas for the consulfhip. o letters addresse tollim during thesears 64 6 have been preserved, but it oes no sollowstat he was a Rome ali that time. In December, 33, e induce theequites to mahe a demonstration in suppor os Cicero ' a service formhicli his positionis a member os an id equestria famil gave imgreat advantages. At the end of 6 orieginning of 6 he embarhed at Brundisium in Epirus M. Det He declinexto atten Quintus Cicero to Asia as his legate, and was noti very good term Withaim, thinhing that Quintus id not reathis sister geli v. inst. ). Private assair maint occupie hi thoughis, buta seem to have arned Cicero against sormin to cloSe an unionwith Pompey' He returne to Rome sor a se monilis a the en os 6 B.c. aut en bachao Epirus in May, 59 . Cicero frequently beggedhim to return But Atticus stayed in Epirus ili November, and when hereturnexto Rome Cicero thought that he didiot he sufficient ea in
ou hopes os a speed return, hicli Cicero hardi shared . Atticus was adopte by the illis his unci about this time, and inherite te million sesterces rom hi ' He est Rome bout the end os 58, and presently me Cicero a Dyrrhachium M. 3. Aster Cicero's restoratio Dom exile, Atticus seems sor Some timet have ahen itue par in politics. He returne to Rome early in 56 B. c., an marrie Pilia'. illi ho h seem to have live very happily Atticus again tes Rome bout a Io, 54', an aster a ShortSta in Epirus en to Asia, and wroteo Cicero rom Ephesus Hereturne to Ital in the inter apparently, and remaine there bout three ear Heia a daughterior to him in s 'Cicero, durin his proconsulate, equested the aid os Atticus in various matterS-especiali to prevent his ein detaine in Cilicia ' He was also anxious to defendiis own bellaviou to Brutus f Atticus returnedio Rome suffering rom a sever, September I9, 5 B.C. δ' L . During the civit,ar. hichaega in the neXt year, Atticus seems no to have ive Cicero an very distinc advice, and was probablyguide by ha seeme his Diend' inclinations ' He was liberal to Cicero, an to his amit δ', ut remaine neutra in the struggle-an altitude hicli satisfie Caesar more than Pompey. ster Cicero' returnio Brundisium Atticus as his confidant in the troubie caused by theuia natura conduci os his rother an nephew δ' and by the allegedselfistines of Terentia ''. About his time, probably Atticus intercede so Buthrotum, hichlia incurre Caesar' displeasure, an Saved iis and Do consiscatio by givin securit for the paymen o a considerable sum os
5. During the ear 45 .c. Atticus and Cicero generali lived apari, ut hept up a constant correspondence δ' ster Caesar' death Atticus too no decide par in politios, ut lent large sum to Brutus privately. He a again anxious about Buthrotum, and entreate Ciceroto intercede illi variousseopte naehalsis iis inhabitanis '. Atticus Seem to have approve os Caesar' Murder, and of the
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vigorous acts os Dolabella'-ando have been adroth a besore , in atin what advice Cicero Uighed hi to give. 'hen, hoWeVer via o Mutina ha gone decidedi against Antony, Atticus SSὶSted his is Fulvia a service in return or hichinnion exempte no only Atticus himself, but two os his hiends, rom proscription. Aster the batile os Philippi, Atticus hept uina riendi correspondenceboth illi Anton and with Octavian; the lalter osten consulte him npoetica and antiquaria questions Atticus' healili ad gener: beem very good, but when about ear old he was visite by a pam' dis-orde aggravate perhaps in the rs instanc by mestreament He
In d rom sold, hinhing the case desperate, an die Marcho I, ' 6 e vias extremet wealthy besides his uncte' legacy, he had
inherited two millio sesterces rom his ather. About meaea 6 B.αh had bourelii a considerable estate ear Buthrotum in EpiruS, and he had perl ps properties a Sybota an in Corcyra'. an large sumsa interest in Sicyon Macedonia, and Delos seem to have been moderate in his demand os interest, ut prompt in exacting' u . scindita e both on hisa se and on his able, a n oderate a leas compare missi stat os the wealthy Romans he had a sine
house illi ardens o the Quirinal, a villa clos to Rome, and States at Ardea, at Nomentum, and nea Lucretilis. On his state a Buthrotum stood the Amaltheum an parimen or stirine containing roups of mythologica personages, and bust os eminent Romans, illi a sewlines os poetr under acti, os his own composition. Cicero S Wasamon them. Cicero ae Atticus to collectoork of ari or im
The claves os Atticus mere valvabie a copyisis o readerS; Some finem seem to have been trainexas gladiator.'. His noviledge os in sondnes sor literature ere remactable hewrote a Gree account os Cicero' consulfhip a compendium os Roman history, and Various genealogical ores. e spoke an v te both Greeli and Latin With great elegance and propriety. His knowledge of dates and of antiquities generali Was remactatae, an hi poWeros rapid calculatio stili more so 7. In philosophy e Seem to have inclinexto Epicureanism'.
APPENDI ITI 3IL . He was placable an assectionale as a Son huSband, and ather, an an honest, is no very energetic friend. He a on intimate termswith many os his eminent contemporaries traces may be Mund of an intimac belween him and the Claudii' and among his acquaintance were Pompey', Q. Hortensius, M. Varro Q. Gellius Canus, A. Torquatus, Q. Metellus Celer Caesar a pleased by his no leavin Ital during the first civit,ari His sister Pomponia marrie Q. Cicero, ut me arriage a nothappy, and Seem to have been terminate is a divorce bout mor
Atticus hadis aughter-Pomponi or Caecilia Attica-bor 5 B.c. si Sh marrie M. Agrippa, at Antony's suggestion about 36; their claughter Vipsania Agrippa a betrothe when ardi a year id to Tiberius Nero, afterWard emperor, hom he Subsequently married, and lived happily ith him ill Augustus requiredaim to separate Domaer'. The authoritie so the bove biography, besides the passages quoted in the notes have been the lis os Atticus by Cornelius Nepos, and that ruman in the Murth volume of his Roman history.
The Lex Porcia, nacted probably, in the year I97 .c., provide thalno Roman citigen hould e scourge o puto death by the sentenceos a magistrate. p. Liv Io. Sali Cat. 5 I; Cic. pro Rab. 4, 2. Subsequently a Lex Sempronia C. Gracchi provide that no commissions hould e appotnted, ithout the consent of the eople, sori in cases in hicli the caput' os a Roman citigen as endangered. Cp. Pro Rab. l. c., and the quotation rom Ahrens in relli' Index
Neither of these laws, os course, ould intersere illi the old capital prosecutions perduellio, besore theseopte assembled in the comitia centuriata; ut suci prosecutions Uere very rare in the lateroears of the
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aeta APPENDI ITIt is clea that the executionis Lentulus and his accomplices Was in direct violation os the Porcia lavi, an os ther probably unles the decree by hicli the senate investe the consuis illi extraordinarypomersi derent consules ne quid detrimenti res publica caperet deprived
right a ciligens Cicero argues stat such a the lega effect o stat decree and that Lentulus an his associales ere ullaWs Cp. In Vat
ffeci' os lia decree, ea potestas per senatum more Omano x gintratibus maxima permittitur . . . coercere omnibus mois ocio atque
deprived os citigenship even by a vote os the eople, Without his Un 'leg had the genate the power os sentencin citigens O deam. The question is, whether it could invest the consul missi suci pomer. In practice, iis right to do so ad io passe unquestioned. JOpimius had een accused besore the eoplessor his meritie in puttingdown the insurrectionis C. Gracchus he was, however, acquitted cp- Epit. 61) and C. Rabirius had been prosecuted in the very ea os Cie ' conquiship. sor havin hille a man when co-operatin in h
ruth iam to e stat in senate ad usurpe illega powers in iisu' patio hadine n largely though no universally, approve Vm mattherelare it is an exaggeration to Speah, as Mommsen doe . osse exemtion o Lentulus as a judicia murder' I, 7 and 81 , and that
opinions seem to have been much divide a Rome a mong modern scholar on the question In addition to Mommsen, Rein, Criminal-ch. 56a Lange Rom. Alt. 1. 615 and 616 Arnold, Later Roman
Lecture a. 53 decidedly, and the author os in articles sonsul and
I. I. At Arpinum This as inherited by Cicero sto his ather δ:it was retired, and Cicero Stayed there, Seem to have Munxit an agree able residence in pring or summer . He ad there an Amaltheum ' His rother Quintus ad K estates ea it, calle Arcanum and
a. At Tusculum This ad formerly been the properi os Sulla, then os Q. Catulus The villa a richi adorned illi statues and pictures, and ad a gymnasium attachedo it ' Cicero offere this properi sor sale ' in 7 .c., ut sterWard change his ind, sor e findaim in possessionis it ' at a later period. 3. At Antium This as an agreeable an retire spol' Ciceroseem to have sold it besore 3 .c. to M. Lepidus '. . At Formiae This a one of his oldest possessions. e spent Some moneympo it but ound the siluatio busilini . 5. At Pompeii He Spent much o the decoratio of his villa there, and Seem to have hept possessionis it tili his death δ. 6. At Cumae. A delightsul pol, ut in to cro dedis eighbour-hood . Disrars mentione aster his return rom exile'. The treatife De Republica was parti writte there Let. At Puteoli. Ont mentione in his late letters ' Cicero composed the 'Academica there, and was perhaps visite therei Caesar 'toward the endis 45 .c. 8. At Astura This is no mentione besore 45 .c., an perhapsva purchased in that year' Cicero had also severat ouses at whichae could lodge or a night intravellin stomone state to another 'deversoria 'ὶ e. g. a Tarracina δ' perhaps Sinuessa Cales δ' Anagnia '. a. He parte&with his ather' hous a Rome to his brother and
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hou lit so three million and aiat os sesterces, a magnificent one Onthe Palatine, hicli ad elonge to M. Livius Drusus, an asterWardSto M. Crassus It was destroyed by Clodius in 58 .c., and the moneygranted by the consul sor iis restoration in s was insussicient, Speciallyas in rebulldin genti flowly, and was hindered by violence The dowrnwhicli Cicero received illi Terentia, amounte to oo,oo sesterces, and a legac bequeathedri him tolerabi early in se amounte to 36o,oo, In 6 B. c. he atready Wne the eState Jt Formiae and Tusculum, and paidiso, o SeSterce so Statue . The Stoic Diodotus, ho ad live some time in his ouse, est him te millio os sesterces in B. c. But his exile caused hi great
cated himsel ' and e subsequently borrowed mone sto Milo, Ves
He suspecte Philotimus, a reedman os Terentia, os culpabie miS-managementi peculation 'Cicero received a legac durin his absence in Cilicia, hicli e calis
His divorce rom Terentia i 46 B. c., and the expense of hi Son Seducation, te to resti, ut o ver serious, embarrassmenis δ' His properi seem stili to have been subStantiali unimpatre in the summerosia δ' He neede Atticus hel a times, win to his dissiculi ingetlinii money owediim e. g. rom Faberius y This Appendix gives the substance of the oth sectio os Bruchner's Lis os Cicero.
On Sept. 29 Cicero pleade besore the pontifices-perhaps in thespeech De Domo Sua,' hicli e stili possess-against the legalit os the consecrationis the sit os his hous by Clodius. The our decidedin his avour' and the senate in the wo solio King ays, paSSed voles empoWering the consul to reimburs him so the destructio bothis his hous and of his villas. The wor os rebullding Was speedilytegun and though interrupted by Clodius, a protected by Milo. Abo ut the fame time Cicero remove sto the Capito the tableis recording the acts of Clodius tribunate This displeased Cato, holad received an honourabie commissio sto Clodius .
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Caesar, during this summer, subdued the Belgae, o who the Nervii mere the most amous tribe, an received the submission os severat tribes o the north-west coast. Toward the lose of the year hi legate Ser Galba, as employed in reducing the Veragri, antuateS, and Seduni nea the ahe os Geneva' to submission In honour os these victories, Cicero supporte a vote os fleen day thankSgivings-an unprecedented distinctio 'Thus a Cicero, since his return to Rome, ad done nothin todisplease, an a great dea to gratist the triumvirs. The ex se montiis linesse a change of his politica altitude.We have seen that Pompe had quarrelled illi Clodius Cicero's restoration could ni increas the alter' animosity, and e assectedio suppon Crassus, ho ad alway been jealous o Pompey, and WaSperhaps anxious tot senti a public commission to Alexandria 'The curious result sollowed that a temporary good understandingvias effectedietween the leader of the optimates ' an Clodius. Thisma promoted by the interest hicli Cato ha in maintaining the legalityos the acts of Clodius ' ut it mus have tende to bring Milo and
a. ur nowledge of the event of the eari monilis os his earis derive maint sto letters to ' Lentulus Spinther, o governor fCilicia, an to Q. Cicero' no in Sardinia, and actin a legat to Pompey. Clodius ad been electe curule aedile' and o Scape sora ea an dangeris prosecution, rom hicli magistrate Uere exemptduring thei year of office '. In January, Cicero argue in the senate, that P. Lentulus Spintherinouldie allowexto restore Ptolemy XII. at V Alexandria. ut opinions in the senate ere much divided a passage sto the Sibylline books, sorbidding the employmentis an arm in the transaction, a circulated not without effect Cicero himself was probabi somewhat distracte by the rival laim os Pompe an Lentulus, and the assair a alourned
indefinitet Τ' Nex monili Clodius accused Milo os totous proceeding vis' V).
b Ne avem account os the issu os the triat, but it seem untihely thata conviction Should have passed unnoticed. O Feb. 3, Cicero defende L. Bestia on a charge sariber besore the praetor Domitius the tria gave ima opportunit os founding public seelingi politicat' allusions Stili more a this the casei thetria os . Sestius for tot in March. He ad been active the earbe re in promotin Cicero' restoration, and the charge a no doubi based in pari pon his conduci a that time. Other experiencedadvocates spolie so the delance Cicero last, as usual His Speechwas a politica manifesto. He stili treate Pompe an Caesar ith courtes o the whole ; ut prosesse unlimited respect so the senate , an during the ourse of the proceedings Mundo opportunit os inveighin bitteri against Vatinius, ne of the witnesse so the PrΟ-Secution, Speciali on account of his bellaviour in ' .c. Thiscannot have been agreeable to Caesar, though Cicero assected iso toconsideriim responsibi sor the measures of Vatinius. Sestiu was unanimousi acquitted' and this may have encouraged Cicero to hewareater independeno M a time. He oon came again into collision illi Clodius. Various prodigies gere reported, and the opinion os haruspices as ahen a to fiat theyportended, and what was the cause of the divine displeasure intimated by them. The haruspices reported among the causes that the god Were displeased ecause acre rites ere reate a prosane an Clodius instantly in a Speech to the eople, applied his to the rebulldin os Cicero' house Cicero thought it necessar to argue in the Senate against his interpretation. His speech De Haruspicum Responsis, is
maint an attachipo Clodius, and he hinis y that the optimates hould notae deluded by his flatteries.
The ansWer of the haruspices seems, hoWever, o have been procuredin the interest os the optimates, an notis Clodius onj. It containeda arning against dissension among the nobies hicli might lead to the concentration os ali powers in the and os ne an , illi reserenoeperhaps to the propoSal o C. Messius. The confused state os parties Was hewn by the acquitia of Sex. Clodius, prosecuted by Milo a the instanc os Pompey sor he wed his acquitia to the voles of the senatorial portio os his judges. 3. A politica crisis ha been or ome time approaching Various
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circumstances had raise the spirit os the optimates, as e have Seen the enthusiasm,ith hicli the Italians had greete Cicero' return theelectionis consul lavourabie, o not adverse, to the old constitution the acquittat of Sestius, indicatin the temper os the tribunals the quarreis among the triumvir and thei instruments. Even Cicero a inspiredwit unwonte confidence an decision, and hecam so a momen the Spohesmanis the optimates LThe revenue a in an unsatisfactor state, anxii able o meet theheau demand made pon it so the suppi of cor to the capital, and so the pay os Caesar' army No a considerable income adbeen sacrifice by the alloiment os the Campania domat unde theagraria laws of 59 .c., and Cicero, o April , proposed that he Senate liould, o Ma I 5 discus the legalit os suci alloiment. odoub the object of this motion a the repea of the laWs os 59, andit a thus a direct challenge to Caesar It is probabie stat Cicero hoped too much Dom in suspected istrangement os Pompen stomCaesar The conduci os the ormer, illi respect both to the propoSalos Messius'. and to the restoration os Ptolemy , betrayed agerneSS Oobtain an important militar command an he was probabi jealousos Caesar Thus Cicero seem noto have been surpiised hen, at an intervie shorti aster his own proposa ha been made in the Senate, Pompe shewed no signis displeasure But e salie to considertha the agraria law of 59 ad been rus much Pompey's Work asCaesar's; that the friendshi os those two leaders a secured by marriage connection and thau severat of the optimates especiallyFavonius. M. Bibulus, and Curio iisliked Pompey, and would not
stat homoliet offensive patronage of Clodius. Caesar, probabi Warnexos the state os assair a Rome had est his
Transalpine province and was noma Ravenna, here Crassus 'mongothers, Walted on him. The resultis thei representations seems' have been that Caesar a much incensed against Cicero, and probably Ome-what disturbed by the doubtia bellaviour os Pompey. The alter, hoWever, ould no submit o so decide an attach on his ast polic asthat madet Cicero' motion He les Rome or a visit to Sardinia and Africa, and on hi Wanto one of the orther poris os Italy ha a conserence illi Caesar a Luca Man senator an men olding ighossice were drawn to the place by this important meeting. L . Both Pompe an Caesar had reason to isti for a re-establish-
3 Ad Att. 4. I, 7s Ib. I. 9, 9
mentis mendi relations Pompey, nable to conduci assair a Rome by himseli ha to choose etween a reconstructio os the triumvirate ansa surrende to the optimates, ho ad shewn litti consideratio sorhim. A sor Caesar, his provincialiovernment ould expire in Marcii, 5 4.c. he would then have either o resigii or o declare ars thegovernment. The conquest os aut a no completed, and it asprobabi doubisulcis, ithout Pompey's id, e could et his overn-ment prolonged. An understandinibetWeen the two leaders a Soon arrivexat, an iis objecis seemo have bee two to hec the risingspirit o independence in the capita an in Italy, and o Secure theposition o Pompe and Caesar. The supportis Crassus ad perhapsbee Hready promised a Ravenna. Pompe and Crassus ere to sue so the consulfhi sor 55 .C., and socio prevent the electionis L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, ho might have prove a sormidable nemy. Caesar' government of aut a to e prolonged sor sive ears, an Pompe an Crassus ere o have thergovernment sor a like period. The position o Crassus ad alwaysbeen a subordinate one, ut his ealth and connections ad hi a valvable ally, and ache could neve aspire t the rs place, he might
be of muchis as a mediator belween his more eminent colleagUeS. The measures necessar to carry ut these stipulations ere Only
proposed in the nexi ear, ut it is reasonable o suppos that they
Therars intimation hicli Cicero received of the ne compaci, Seemst have been rom Quintus, illi ho Pompe remonstrate in Sardinia on his rother'. conduci. This place Cicero in a position os great dissiculty he had to choose belween submission to the triumvirS, and an opposition in hichiost os his allies ould e actious, selfish, and impracticabie, hich would probabi be ruitiess, an migh dismisshim to a secon and more hopeles exile. He chos submission; illidrew, apparently his motion o the Campania domains , and ad some apolog to Caesar sor his recent oppoSition. 5. N partis Cicero' career feem to have caused hi more regret an vexation he attempte to justis it by elaborate excuse and petulant recrimination ' Personat ea and ealous no doubi influencedhim to a considerable extent, butither considerations hould noti tostsight os. He had neve professed an absolute devotion to the optimates he had more than once argue in favour os investin Pompe Withi Adiam. I. 9, 9. Fam. I. 9, 9 t I 8. Ad Q. F. 2. 8, a. Ad Att. 4. 5. Ad Att. 4. 5 I.
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extraordinar poWersu and the main objectis his politica lise had beento maintain a good understandin belween him, the optimate eaderS, and the equites. Now this seeme impractic te and is the event of 59-58 .c. might delach Cicero sto Pompey, What ad appenedsince his return to Rome a hardi lihelyrio ut hi o good termswith the optimates Euen his exile seem to have inspire hi Withalmos a much regeniment togard his irresolute supporter a toWardS his more ope enemies' ster ali, however, he an hardi be acquitie dos rastines in his defiance, and of weahnes in his recantation and the ex se years form perhaps, the par of his career hicli hisbiographe will regard with leas pleasure. It was, however a time os reat activit sor Cicero as an orator, especiali in the iam couris and the speeches hich have been pre-
The speech in delance of M. Caelius Rufus, accuse of sedition ando attempte polsoning Seem to elon to thi Spring or Summer, uti is no eas to ficiis recis date. It was successit, an Seem toliave texto a lastin Diendshi belween Cicero and his client. Intimacywith Catiline had been made a charge against Caelius, and in replyingi it Cicero introduced a portraitis Catiline more avourable tha those with Which e are mos familiari . 6. bout this time Cicero argued in the senate in savour os a granto mone so the pay o Caesar' troops, an os his ein alloWed tonam te legates horti aster ard he had to attest his recantatio bya stili more decide Step. discussion too place in the senate bout the assignation os province to the consul os 55 .c., provisio sor hichoas generallymade besoreliand Some proposed that either Cisalpine or Transalpine Gaul shouldi one, hicli os course ould impinthe withdrawal sine
strances of some of the optimates, and os the consur Philippus, opposed the suggestion SuccesSsully saying that it Was essentia that is and Gabinius ' hould e recalle a Soon a possibie, and that dissiculties would aris is ne os Caesar' provinces ere assigne to ne of the consuli sor 55. He also extolled the successes os Caesar' an attached the inconsistenc of thos optimates ho questione the validit of the
i P. Lentulus Spinther about his time, Cicero describes the debat asthough he had ahenis prominent par incit himself. Elther in the summe or autumn e pleade so the right os citigen-shi os L. Cornelius Balbus, hicli ad been conserred by Pompe in Spain. The validit of the ac dependedi stricti legatioinis, but thetria enabled Cicero to he his devotion to Pompe by panegyrici The confidence hicli Pompenderived rom the renewalis his alliance With Caesar seem to have removed his anxiet tot employed in Egypt andae authoriged Cicero to rite o Lentulus, in termψη hichius be
considerexas a cautious encouragement i intervention.
During the las lammonilis of the year, litile os importance appenedat Rome Cicero suffere a severe os in the death ' os L. Lentulus Niger, flamen o Mars, sor hom he had et much steem. He was
also much annoyed by the humiliatin position to hich he had been
reduced, and seem to have avoide the capitalis much a possibie. In a curious letter to L. Lucceius, Cicero entreate him to rite aneulogistic account of his services and uiserings, and noto confine himself stricti to the truth. Tullia a betrothed 'cin the pring to Furius Crassipes, but a marriagedoes no Seemo have ensued Atticus arrie Piliam Feb Ia', and Cicero osten notices her in his late letters.
7. In Gaul Caesar reduce the Veneti, and asterward the Morini an Menapii P. Crassus, ne of his ossicers, conquere the Aquitani, and another, Sabinus, the nelli . In Syria Gabinius seem to have gaine successes ver Aristobulus, who ad scapedorom taly'. e thought himself entille to a supplicatio, but the senate, greatlyrio Cicero' satisfaction, refused iton May I5. Cicero accuses ' him os corruptio an extortion, very possibi mith good rounds; ut the unpopularit o Gabinius illi the publicani may have arisen rom his consulting the interest os the provincials-the JeWs an Syrians, of ho Cicero speah as bor sor
Piso ad been a unscrupulous, and es successsul, in Macedonia. He had oppressed and despolied the subjects of Rome, and Cicero say. that his arm melle away Withou meetin an nemy. Perhaps this was the reason hyae a recalle soone than Gabinius. The senate resolved that Piso hould e succeeded, at the eginning os 55 .c., is
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Q. Ancharius Priscus, apparentis one os the praetor sor 56 While Gabinius as to e succeede by the consul M. Crassus a the begin- ning of 54. It appears that C. Cato, ne os the tribunes, intersered illi the
electio os consul for 55 .c. ence an interregnum ' intervened,
sollowed by a very turbulent election, at hicli Pompe an CraSsus were chosen Thei mos sormidabie opponent a L. Domitius
D8. The ne consul applied themselves at once to securing theirposition. The electionis praetor too place Without delay, and OWingio gros bribery Vatinius as elected and Cato de aled . Ga was propoSed by C. Trebonius, assigning to the consul the government f Spat an Syria sor sive ears Pompe obtaine Spain, an Crassus Syria Another law prolonge Caesar' government os aut so sive yearS. t a perhaps proposed by the consuis' Cicero declares' that he earnesti dissuade Pompe stom sanctioning this enaciment. About the fame time Crassus, illi the approva of his colleague, carrie a law against illegat politica combinations sodalicia. Theseclubs eremo probabi Stronghold of the optimates, and seem to have been hilsuli managed, a the electio sor curule ossicer for 5 and 56 B.C. ha been, o the whole, adverse to the triumvirs. The judges in triat unde the ne la were to eoahe sto three tribes, the accuser namini ur os,hicli the accused might rejectine M. L. Piso, aster his retur sto Macedonia, ad inveighe bitterly against Cicero, ho replied by the speech In Pisonem, stili extant. It consist principali os mere abuseri ut in hap. et we n theimportant ac recorded that Gabinius ad atready occupie Alexandria and restore Ptolemy. Shorti asterWard Pompe opene his ne theatre, illi how of extraordinar splendour. Cicero expressed ' great disgust so the more cruei paris of the entertainment, and the sensibilit of the Spectators generali Wa arouSed by the laughter os eighteen elephanis.
Cassius 39. 33 represent that Caesar' mend threatene oppositio is his eremo done: but it seem more likel that the whole of this legislation a carrie o in concert. Appendix 6. o notes. ' Philipp. a. Io 24. y Schol. ob ad orat Pro Planc. c. I 5 Dion Cassius 39, 37. ' Adiam. 7. I, 3 cp. Ad Att. 2. I, I.
Cicero, bout the fame time, as prevallet upon to defenda Caninius Gallus, the turbulent tribune os 57-56 B. c., a tas sor hicli e Seem to have sellareat repugnances In November, apparently CrasSus et ut to assume the governmentos his province . Cicero ad been at variance illi hi earlier in theyear the were noW ho ever, reconcite by the interventionis Caesar
an Pompey, and Crassus accepte Cicero' hospitalit jus besore his
departure Cicero reseri to this time asine os reat literar activit on his pari. It mos important resulis seemo have been the three books' De
and perhapi resused exemption to those ho destre them. At the electio os praetor sor 54 .c., M. Cato was ne of the successi candidates. The electio os aediles a disturbe by totan bloodshed Pompey's toga was stained illi lood, and the figlitos δ' it gave his ise, Julia, a hoc stom hich he neve altogether recovered Sh died next year. 9. The evenis os the war in Gaul were important. The campaignopened illi the destructio os the Usipetes an Tencteri, ho adcrosse the Rhine, and were attached rather V reacheroustyi Caesar. He Was anxious to deepe the impression thus made thre a ridgeove the Rhine, an spent om day on iis right an with the intention os strihin terror into the population. sterwardsae received the submission of the Morini, and made his firs expedition in into Britain, Whicli, hoWever, produce no decisive resulis'. In Syria, Gabinius, aster restorin Ptolem XII. at Alexandria, ad returne to his province, and was preparinisor ar illi Parthia. Asamit quarret in the Arsacid dynast gaveaim a pretex sor interserence. Phraates hin o Parthia ha been murdered by his sons Mithridates an Orodes and when the lalter feeme lihelyrio secure the throne, Mithridates flexio δ' Gabinius, ho, however, could not assis him atonce, as his intention a diverted by the assair δ' os Egypt.
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Io. The consul sor his ear er L. Domitius Ahenobarbus and Appius Claudius Pulcher The orme was ne os the mos obstinate an determine of the optimates the alter an incapable and covetous manis no definite politica convictions. The extraordinar command8,however no held by the triumvirs, made it the les important ho held the ordinar political ossices. Cicero seem stili to have acquiesced completet in the governmentis the triumvirs. Among his forensi speeches, of which he delivere an unusual number in his ear, e rea os ones in ut o bellat os C. Messius, no a legat os Caesar of one , deliverexsomeWhat later,sor Vatinius, hom Cicero ad denounce so bitteri a the time of Sestius triat an even os ones delivere in the autum so Gabinius, whomae had considered his orS enemy. Gabinius ad been accused omeWhat earlier by a Lentulus, and acquitted by a bare majority, to the great disgus os Cicero, ho ore testimons against him. Gabiniusta attached Cicero ' violenti in thesenate, butin his tria expresse a WiSh sor reconciliation The speech Pro Rabirio Postumo, no extant, a deliveredis a tria whicli greWout of that o Gabinius, hos urius gain Rabirius as accuse of sharing. Os Cicero' other speeches of this date, has delivered in the senateo bellat o M. Crassus mus have possesse much politica interest. The consul and other eminent senator attache Crassus, probabi sorhis measures ' against the Parthians. The speech stili extanti bellais of Cn. Plancius, Cicero' old rien an protector in exile, supplie good illustrations of the proceedings at a Roman election. lancius adbeen accuse of ribery by another frien o Cicero, M. Iuventius Laterensis A third, in hicli Cicero pleade so the eople o Reate against the eopte os Interamna, in a case relatin to the managementos the ourse of the Velinus, hews that a stiendi connection a stili maintainedietween Cicero and theseopte os Reate. II. The letters belongin to this ea are-severa in the FourthBook to Atticus, an in the en of the econ and eginning of the Thir Boo to his rother Quintus, illi various others of Whiel themos interestin are a laboured ' delance of his recent political conduci, an a recommendation in os a laten to Caesar.
Quintus Cicero seems, at the eginning of this ear, t have trans-serre his services stomaompento Caesar' apparently Without opposition rom Pompey. He ecame ne os Caesar' mos emcient ossicers, an his presenc Was a securit sor his brother' good bellaviour Thegenera tone os the letters of Marcus to Quintus at this time is oneos great politica despondency, and e repeatedi Warn his rotherto e cautious in riting . e seare the possibi resulis os an interregnum, solio ed by a dictatorship expresse interest in Messalla, asa candidate so the consulfhi sor 53 .c., an in Milo sor 5 thoughregretting the alter' extravagance and Strangement frOm Pompey. Η received a letteris Caesar'. sto Britain, an expresse generallygreat regard sortim, and admiration sor the firmnes With whichi bore his daughter's loSS. Cicero' leisure Was occupie to a great extent in the compositiono the si book on thes Common ealth, hicli e posses in a fragmentar State. Α poem in ' three bookS, On his exile and return, may also elon to this ear, an he addresse another 'o Caesar o his victories in Gaul. The politica corruption no prevallin a Rome was illustraled by the proceedings of the candidate so the consulfhi in his ear, tw of whom made a Scandalous argain illi the actua consuis, hichwas presenti disclose in thes Senate No electio too placeriit thesevenili monili os 53 .c., accordin to Dion Cassius y In the summer of this ear, as has been mentione by anticipation in Pompey' Wise, Julia, died, and received a splendi lanerat Her eath vas a greatllowrio Caesar both a clather an as a politician. Ia In the East, CrasSus replace Gabinius a proconsulis Syria, and prepare so war illi the Parthians Mithridates δ' ad been de-kalexand hilled during the absenc os Gabinius in Egypt, ut there asstili much dissensio in Parthia Crassus, hoWever employed his first summe in levyin heau contribution o the provinciais, an inpiundering the temples os Syria an Palestine. His ni militarymeasure as a marcii into Mesopotamia, in hicli e et illi seruenemies, and Secure Some position os importanc so the nexi ear's campaigi' Caesar, meanWhile, aster ViSitin Illyricum, made a second expedition