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very early times annales, lain record of the facts connected with ach in that assed-the ames of magistrates, theoccurrence of prodigies, the breising ut o Conclusioni War.
Livy like a true Roman adopte suc a frameWor sor his history. Whilete telis incli incident With ait the realis and picturesquenes he an Command the heleton os the wholeis stillis bare lis os date evenis To judge hi sto any other potnt of vie is a unsai as to ignore the similar sheleton in the HebreW Book of the ino. POLITiCAL COMPLEXION GF HE MORΚ. Although the districtisorth of the o received the Romansranchise through the determination o Caesar in B. C., Patavium fide With ompey, and Livy like ther asteriim, Whos lather oWe to Caesari his successor thei elevationsto the an o provinciais, sympathige Wit the olimrchic fide in the histor of the past. The plebeia strumle sorrecognitioni darhened by shadincit With touche taken homthe character an conducti suci men as Catiline and Clodius; and insainting the times of the Civit War, he hel the balancea least so scrupulousi Without favou to Caesar, that Augustus in est calle him the ompeian his blasma conceivablyhave originate in part rom the partialit of the authoritiesupon hom e reW: Liv hadiso very dee politica philo sophyrapon hic to buit a critica recombinatio of earlier
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to decipher venerable inscriptions. e re stom earlier Writers holad used suc primar evidence of such writers there eressest a successionis bare chronicier like Q. Fabius Pictor, a faithsul recorde of earlier evidence, hociive in thetime o Hannibal; L. Cincius Alimentus, an hones and critica writer of the fame date an L. Calpurnius iso Frugi Censorinus, hos rationalisti treaiment of early traditions made a revolution in the Roman stud of history. ostos these chroniclers ere aristocrais o the ther and C. Licinius Macer in the time os Sulla gave a literar form to his ork, and made researches for himself, statin his insonsis his conclusion differe stom the generat vie . is sympathies too the plebeia fide but Liv remarks that he Mundhim trust orth in his account of olde documentar evidenCe. other literar Writer of about the fame date a Q. Valerius Antias, ho ad a gis like Desoe' sor addin circumstantialdetatis, e g. the exactisumbers horiought an fel in batile.
His reputation led Livnto follow him impliciti a leas in theMst te books; afterWards, henie ooki Polybius for the Second uni War, he discovere discrepancies an rightly conclude that Valerius delatis ere fabricated. Claudius Quadrigarius L et also deserves tot mentioned. eleganliis histor With the Gallic capturei Rome in 39 B. C.
6. 'OME CRITICISMS N THE WΟRΚ.Τoeda a very different conception prevatis as to the functions and uties of historians stom ha prevalle evenis hundredyears ago. Evolutioni developmen is the watchwor so the study of the past. ut besore this conception be me thus pre- dominant, a change had ahen place stom the ancient position. Fort years ago Professor Seelendistinguishe three cluties of the historiam: tW scientific in nature, vig. rs to investigate facts secondi to deduce sto them principies an a third, literar in nature, to arrange an recor the resulis in stately
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narrative 'At Rome, ho-ver no conception existe that
histor should han down truth. The grea Roma literarycriti Quintilia a the en os the firs centur A. D. declared Histor is losely ahin to metry, and is in a Sense a prosemem. It is designe to relate a story, o to establisha theors'. Η theresore commenos in Liv his lactea ubertas i. e. his ample style hich et is pure, simple, an Clear, notiuit os mere empi Wordsin, Whil potatis out that thi Will notmeet the requirements of one Who destres no beaut o narrative, but exactitude of facis.
Vetri Would e unlair o Liv to suppos that a rilliant, picturesque narrative is allinis aim. Is he di not understandthe critica method of scientific history, he et id criticigei a subjective Way the probabilit os conflictin authorities.
Comparison it Polybius, as e have seen led im to dis- count Valerius exaggerate figures. As a literar artis anda historica moralistae attaine an instant fame. A Spaniardjourneyed rom Gades to Rome meret to lookipon him, and harin done foreturne contented Tacitus styles him veterum eloquentissimus, and Νiebuh remaas that his orta breathesalindlines an serenit Which doesine' heart good o real Others have notice his avoidance os obscure constitutionalquestion an discussions that he mandevote imself to vividportraitur os the great deed done in the past his pathos in descriptions his cal to the imperia spiritis his countrymen. I hecis negligenti geograph an caretes enough toput together nippeis sto inconsistent accounts of the fame event, the formis his orcensures that his dates are in themat satri accurate. The student should formiis own udgement of his meriis, but as a means to cali his attention to sidesos his Wor that nee consideratio tW or three criticisms maybe quoted. ir Arnold Wrote: in to Livy the use of reading
Historia est proxima poetis et quodam modo carmen solutum, et scribitur ad narrandum non ad probandum.
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him is almos like that of the drunkenmelot. It hoWs What histor should notis in a very trihin manner an . . . thebook of Lio, hic Re have, relate to a time somninteresting, that it is hard even to extractis value rom them by the most complete distillation so many gallon o vapid Water carcelyhol in combination a particle of spirit.' acaula on theotherian notes I finishediivy, after readinchim Wit thegreates delight interest, an admiration. Finali a sentenCeo tW of Lechy's may be quoted 'To truce, he says, thecauses, hether o good orcili, that have made nations halthe are, is the true philosophi os history It is maint in proportio a this is done that histor becomes a stud of realvalue, an assuredi no historica schoo is more mischievous o misteadin than that Whic evades the problem by treatingat differences of nationa character as innate an inexplicabie,
an nationes crimes an virtves a the materials for mere Partyeulog or pari invective.'
AS e have seen, although criticism have been evelledagainst iv as a historica authority the majorit o readers have found the style in hic he has tot his stor interestingan delightsul. is te of hat he hould aim a Would naturali compellim to do this Within the limits of his poWers.
His earlier rhetorica training gave im a greater command os the language, ut resulte in hat a firs seem to a modera strange habiti constructin speeches hicli are ut Without documentar authorit in the mouth os prominent characters. Εve this practice, however, illi found to prove os materialservice for the vivi representationis these character and of
the siluations in hic the are placed. A centur later alinaturalneSs ad disappeared rom style, an nothin could besaid in a plain Way. ut although the tendencycloward this had egu in Livy' day, it ad not et carrie men' inste
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the orderis namque the ord fatalis L ir; et foretiam a DC adversa montium a ci adde quod I94 6 fempestas m tempus I 15. It is hard to a Whether a similarmotive occasione another peculiarity-the imitation V Greel
ontactica constructions or hether SuCli Constructions ere
of the subject with an infinitive 14 11 the se of participies 4 , 6 Lix the frequentative optative 6 future participies
and an imitation o such constructions as οἱ νυν ari , 74 8, and of the se of υδ 74 14. ore vita to the style is theimagination continuati a planto callip the past vividi and the hill With whic the language is then presse into Serviceto ain What the imagination has seen. It is here that Liv
is perhaps est tot seen a Work, no content illi the ord hicii though it describes a thing, oes no mahe it urnbesore the reader' mind, and caresuli selectin Some ord hos noveit Wil surpris attentio an mahe the matte live. To appreciate the metits of Livy's style in his respect theexac valueo a Roman of his metaphorical ord must begauged, and in the notes attention has osten been calle tothis With the fame objectitv constanti arranges his ordSin an orde that wil guide his reader instanti to the ense. Asinius Pollio, consul in o B. C. Whos critical aste M of
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I INTRODUCTIONthe finest, declare that he ound in Livy' Latin a certain Patavinity. Wherein his provincialis la it is beyondmodern powerri teli, butine o tW potnis in Livy' grammardeserve notice hici are not of the fame character a theimitations just mentione os Gree o of the poeticat.1. For the future infinitive he heeps ea to the ancient indeclinable form to this extent that he neve add esse Cicero inseris and omit esse Wit equat readiness. a. He extend to the nominative case Whicli Cicero does notio the use of a participi an nou in agreement equiv lent practicali in senserio an abstractioum e. g. 34 8. 3. Etiam in Liv somelimes precedes, ometimes folloWs What it emphasiges. In Cicero it seems alWay to precede. 4. His syntax in oratio obliqua does no entiret conformio the rules deduce by grammarians sto Ciceronian sage: e. g. 14 4 a 4, 64 13. But it is seldomethat Livnchanges his construction in passingsrom ne to another of tW parallel Wotas, phrase or ClauSeS,as the later Latin author delight to do. Example are tolefound hoWever, in in vulgus quam stimo cuique eratiorem) in 64 4 incerti . . . ei quod . . . and i. The oun studentishould notice that Liv uses mensum not
These three means mahe or Conciseness, nother of the
virtves in Livy's style. The tota effecti that style has been summedipi Quintilian in the word mira iucunduas clarius musque candor a Wonderia charin and distinction' .
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one grasped the studentias therias besore him os expressingiliis in Englisti, moot an elegant, vigorous an pictorial, aster the anne of his original. To et ome de of What he hould mahe his at he hould read Widely inmacaulay, Froude, apier, Prescoth Creasy, and inglahe. e houldalso stud carefult a lamparagraphs Whichia inhe his lancyas particulari vigorous in thos historians Heraliould observehomshori sentences an long are interWoven to mahe a para-
graph ho the are connected What in o Word are sed, or of those heris osten tempte toras in translatin What indis moided. Η should then resolve to e dissatisfie Withan translation hicli cloes no run a smoothlnto his in andrea a naturali a native English. A the fame time heshould e carem noto ad or subtraci nythin stom his author' statemenis, nor to teli his stor in a more simple and childlike nor in a more stiis an ornamente Way than his Latin Ariemspecta delatis hic generali cause eginners dissiculi ma receive a Word of Comment. I. Certain Common ord in Latin re no represented naturalty in Englisti by Words equalisfixed Thus res Romanam
the Roman state, ovemment rebus ferri Ama, desperate Pass, position siluation gloom CircumstanCes; hile res Osten propoSal, meaSure, Plan an res esse rem to demand satisfaction, reparation Three delatis deserve notiCe.
a In Latin the imperfeci occursos frequently in the passiverus in the active. In English it raret occurs Generalty the translation albeing shouldie avoided, eitheri turning the sentence round so that the active voice of the ver is sed,
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o by abandoning the attempto hee the exact shade flense, is it is of litue importance. The student should examine an instance o tWO e. g. 374 . b English uses the impersona subjec it constantly Where Latin has a persona Subject e. g. ut viderenturm sotha it seemed that thes e Englis spe s of the country - ω sublica. a. Lon sentences hould osten, ut not alWays, be brohenu into hori sentences Considerable judgement an tasteare require so decidin hoW and when his hould e done. The student Wili fines sultable opportunit for practising this
3. The metaphorica language of Liv osten requires expansion or transformation, and the solioWin examples of Englisti expressio ma be studie a suggestive parallel tothe Liv passages indicated though nothin canclahe the placeo extensive stud of Εnglisti authors It is to beranderstood that these parallel bymo means offer ready-made turning of the Latin but the ma serve a the stra Whic ma renderthe mahing of briclis easter for those ho me not et eadenough of their m literature to gather asit so themselves. The ma furnis a in aso ho a translatio ma bestamed i the translator remember that he must not econtent With a loose paraphrase. brilliantaleam o success
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it diverte his sense of the horror around them' iaci ), the scene of the conflici' 434 16), the determining factor in the siluation H), he hear Wit a species of ecstasythe deat o Rudois' a Dio), he was in the ver genith of his transcendent poWers' 34 sin, de by the circumstances both of his private and of his public career' 18 χ), there emerges a personality geniat, bracing, vigorous' , s), a strange paralysis of Will let everropportunit pas unregarded' a Dio), the changes and hances of this mortal life ' 84 3, 4 is impossibi to allo this to e gloge over' 11 I), the heyto the siluation ' a Di), We perceive an intelligenc livelyan acute, ithout attaining to catholicit of judgement ortaste' 34 s) he was no sun unde the burde of ears'
other Way ma have been conceivable ut of the blach ood
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Was ready to sacrifice her persona reseniment to her count 's
Wealth, population, dignity, and sanctit Was amongst thesoremostis Asia, hau long been unde the rulei amindoo