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Dis urse of Postve Obedienta. IIbly in different men, froin their particular vie s and circumstances, hevery different: it is impossibie to know, whether any one instance of parricide or perjury, for example, be criminat. The man may have had his reasons for it, and that whicli in me would have been a heinous sin, may be in him a diaty. Every man's particular rule is buried in his o nhreast, invisibie to ali but himself, who there re can only teli whether
he observes it or no. And since that rule is sitied to particular occasii-ons, it must ever change as they do: hence it is not only various in disse ferent men, but in one and the fame man at different times. X. From ali whicli it follows, there can be no harmony or agreementhetween the actions of good men : no apparent stea linest or consis encyos one man with himself, no adhering to principies: the best actions may be condemned, and the most villanous meet with applause. In aviord, there enies the most horribie confusion os vice and virtve, sin
great end, to whicli God requires the concurrence of human actions,
the observation os certain, Universat, determinate rules or morat precepis, whicli, in their own natUre, haVC a necessary tendency to promote
the well-being of the sum os manliind, taking in ali nations and ages.srom the begirining to the end of the worid. XI. Hence upon an equat comprehensive servey of the generat nature, the passions, interesis, and mutuat respects of manliind; what everpractical proposition doth to right reassen evidently appear to have a necessary connexion with the universat well-being included in it, is to belooked upon as et oined by the will of God. For he that willeth theend, doth will the necessary means conducive to that end; but it hathbeen mewn, that God willeth the universat wellineing of manliind mouldbe promoted by the concurrence of each particular person; there re C et evers
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every lach practical proposition, necessarily tending thereio, is to be enteemed a decree of God, and is consequently a law to man. XII. These propositions are called lams of nature, because they are universal, and do not derive their obligation Dom any civit sanction, but immediately srom the author os nature himself They are seid to besampta on the min4 to be regraven on the tables of the Lari, because theyare well known to manliind, and suggested and inculcated by conscience. Lastly, they are termed eternal rules of resson, hecause they necessarilyresult fio m the nature of things, and may be demonstrated by the infallibie deductions os rea n. XIII. And notwithstanding that these rules are too osten, Cither by the Unhappy concurrence of evenis, or more especialty by the wichednest os perverse men, who will not conform to them, mado accidental causes of misery to those good men, Who do; yet this doth not vacate their obligation, they are ever to he esteemed the fixed unalterable standards of morai good and evit; no private interest, no love os friends, no regard to the public good, should
cerning the morality of an action, it is plain, this cannot be dete mined by computing the publio good, whicli in that particular caseit is attended with, but only by comparing it with the eternal law of reason. He who squares his actions by this rute, can ne ver do amisi, though thereby he mould bring himself to poverty, death, ordi race: no, not though he mouid involve his semily, his friends,
his country in ali those eviis, Whicli are accouuted the greatest, and most insupportabie to human natum. Tendernesi and benevolence of temper are osten motives to the best and greatest actions; but we must not malae them the sole rule of our actions; they are passions rooted in cur nature, and like ali other pastions must be restra ined and hept under,
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XIV. For the illustration of what has been seid, it will not be amisi,
is stom the morat we turn our eyes on the natural Worid. Homo ortus
es says Balbus in Cicero ') ad mundum contemplandum, S imitandum: and su rely, it is not possibie for Deo intellectual agenis to propose a no-bter patiern sor their imitation than nature, whicli is nothing else buta series of Dee actions produced by the best and wisest agent. But it is
evident that those actions are not adapted to particular vie s, but aliconformed to certain generat rules, whicli heing collected Dom observation, are by philosophers termed laws of nature. And these indeedare excellently suited to promoto the generat well-being of the creation: but what Dom casual combinations os evenis, and what stom the voluntary motions os animais, it osten fatis ovi, that the natural good notonly of private men, but of entire cities and nations, would be betterpromoted by a particular suspension, or contradiection, than an exadt observation of those la s. Yet for ali that, nature stili talies iis course; nay, it is plain that plagues, famines, inundations, earlhquakes, with an infinite variety of pains and sorrows; in a word, ali hinds of calamities public and private do arise Dom a uni rin steady observation of tho generat laws, whicli are once estabit med by the author os nature, and which he will not change or deviate Dom upon any of those accoUntS, how wise or benevolent foever it may be thought by olisti men todo Q. As sor the miracles recorded in scripture, they were alWayswrought sor confirmation os seme doctrine or mission from God and not for the salie of the particular natural goods, as hcalth or lila, which me men might have reaped Dom them. From ali whicli it seems
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lassiciently plain, that we cannot be at a losi, which way to determine, in case we thirili God's own methods the properest to obta in his ends, and that it is our duty to copy after them, Q far as the frailty of our nature Will permit. XV. Thus far in generat, of the nature and necessi ty os morat rules, and the criterion or mark Whereby they may be known. As for the particulars, Dom the foregoing discourse, the principat of them may without much difficulty be deduced. It hath been merun that the law of natureis a system os such rules or precepis, as that is they be ali of them, at alltimes, in ali places, and by ali men observed, they Will necessari ly pro- mole the well-being of manliind, so far as it is attain able by human actions. Now, let any one who hath the use of reason, talae but an impartiat furvey of the generat frame and circumstances of human nature, and it will appear plainly to him, that the constant observation os truth, sor inflance, of justice, and chasti ty, hath a necessary conneXion withtheir universat well-bein g; that there re they a re to be es iee med vir- tues or duties, and that, thou siali not jor ear th ef thou nati not commis adulleo, thou Dait not seat, a re so many unalterable morat rules, which to violate in the least degree is vice or sin. I say, the agreement of these particular practical propositions, with the definition, or criterion premi sed, doth so clearly result fio m the nature of things, that it werea need tesse digression, in this place to enlarge Upon it. And Dom thes a me principie, by the very fame reason in g, it follows that loyalty is a morat viriue, and, thou flati not ressi the supreme power, a rule or law of nature, the leaist breach whereos liath the inherent stain os morat turpitude. XVI. The miseries inseparabie frona a state os an archy are east ly im gined. So in lassicient is the wit or strength of any single man, et therto avert the eviis, or procure the bleslings of liis, and so api are the
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wilis of disserent persons to contradict and thwari each other, thatit is absolutely necessary, severat independent powers be combined to-gether, under the direction is I may so spea h) of one and the fame
will, I mean ine law of the society Without this there is no polite ness, no Order, no Peace among men, but the worid is one great hea pos misery and confusiion ; the strong as weli as the weah, the wi se a s wellas the Molisti, standing on ali sides exposed to ali those calamities, whichman can be liable to in a state where he has no other securi y, than thenot being possessed of any thing Which may rat se en vy or destre in another. A state i by so much more ineligibi e than that os brutes, as area nable creature fiath a greater reflexion and foresight of miseries
than they. From ali whicli it plain ly follows, that loyalty or submisson to the supreme authori ty, hath, is universalty practi sed in conjunctionwith ali other vir lues, a necessary connexion with the well-being of the whole sum os manliind ; and by consequence, is the criterion we have la id do vn, be triae, it is, strictly speaking, a morat duty, or branchos natural religion. And there re, the least degree of rebellion is withthe ut most strictnesi and proprie ty a sin : not Only in christians, hut also in those who have the light of reason alone sor their guide. Nay upon a thorough and impartial Vie , this submission will, I thin k, appear one of the very firsi and fundamental la S of nature, inasmuch asit is civit go verninent Whicli ordalias and mari S out the various relations bet ween men, and regulates Proper ty, thereby giving scope and layinga Mundation sor the eXercise of ali other duties. And in truth, whoe ver considers the condition os man, will scarce conceive it possibie that thepractice of any one morat Virtue smould obtain, in the naked, sortorii
XVII. But since it must be consessed, that in ali cases our actions comonot within the direction os certa in fixed morat rules, it may possibly bestiit opaestioned, whether obedience to the supreme po er be not one ofiliose
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those exempted cases, and consequently to he regula ted by the prudenceand discretion os every single person, rather than adjusted to the ruleos absolute non-resistance. I mali there re en dea uour to mahe it yet more plain, that, thou dast nol re i the supreme po er, is an undoubted pre-Cept of morali ty ; as will appear Dom the following considerations. Firstthen, submission to go vernnient is a pol ni important enough to be esla-blis hed by a morat rule. Things of insignificant ann trifling concern,
ing of mankind, cannot surely be thought of too sinali importance tobe secured and guarded by a morat rule. Govern ment, I say, Whichis it self the principat se urce under heaven, of those particular ad van
tages, for the Procurement and conservation whereos, severat unquestion able morat rules Nere prescribed to men.
XVIII. Secondiy, obedience to go vern ment is a case uniυersal enoughto fuit under the direction os a law of nature. Numberlest rules there may be sor regula ting aflairs of great conccrnment, at certain junctureS, and to seme particular persons or societies, whicli not illi standing arenot to be esteemed morai or natural laws, but may be ei ther totalty abro ga ted or dispensed with hecause the private ends they were intended topromote, respect Only me particular persons, as engaged in relations not unded in the generat nature of man, who on various occasions, and in disterent post ures of things, may prosecute their own designs by disserent mea res, as in human prudence mali seem convenient. But What relation is there more extensive and universat than that os subject and law t This is confined to no particular age or climate, but universallyObtains at ali times, and in ali places, where ver men live in a state exaltedabove that os brutes. It is there re evident, that the rule forbiddingressistance to the law or supreme power, is not upon pretence of any
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Disours of Passive Obedience. I desedi in poliat os universalio, to be excluded stom the number of thelaws of nature.
XIX. Thirdly, there is another consideration, whicli confirm3 the necesii tylos admitting this rute for a morai or natural law; namej, be- cause the case it regards is of too nice and di culi a nature to be lest tothe judgment and determination of each private person . Some cases there are so plain and obvious to judge of that they may sasely be trusi edto the prudence of e very rea nable man; but in ali inrtances, to determine, whether a civit law is sitied to promoto the public interest; orwhether submission or resistance will prove most ad vantageous in the consequence; or when it is, that the generat good os a nation may require an alteration of govern ment, either in iis form, or in the handswhicli administer it: these are potnis too arduous and intricate, and whicli require too great a degree of paris, tellare, and liberal education, as weli as disinterestediaest and thorough knowledge in the particular sate of a hingdom, sor every subject to talie tapon him the determination of them. Frona whicli it sollows, that Upon this account also, non-resistance, whicli, in the main, no body cara de ny to be a most pro
private persens to particular Occasioris, but estee med a most sacred laruos nature.
XX. The foregoing arguments do, I thinli, malae it manifest, that the precept against rebellion is on a levet with other morat rules. Whichwill yet farther appear frona this fourth and last consideration. Ιt cannot be dented, that right rea n doth require seme common stated rule ormeasu re, Whereby subjects ought to mape their submission to the supreme power ; since any clashing or dis agreement in this potnt mustu navoidably tend to wealien, and dissolve the society. And it is una void ble, that there mould be great clashing, where it is test to the breast of Vor. II. D each
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18 Dis urse of Postve Obedience.
each individual to fuit his Ancy with a disserent measure os obedience. But this common stated mea re must be ei ther the generat precepi fore bidding resistance, or et se the public good of the whole nation: whichlast, though it is allowed to be in iiself something certain and determinate ; yet, forasmuch as men can regulate their conduci only by what appears to them, whether in truth it be What it appears or no; and since the prospects men form to them selves of a coUntry's public good, a re commonly as Various as iis land scapes, whicli meet the eye in severat sit uations: it clearly follows, that to malle the public good the rule of obedience, is in effeci, not to estabiisti any determinate, agreed, commonmeaire of loyalty, but to leave every subject to the guidance of his own particular mutabie lancy. XXI. From ali whicli arguments and considerations it is a most evident conclusion, that the law prohibiting rebellion is in strict truth a laruos nature, universat re ason, and morali ty. But to this, it wili perhapshe objected by some, that Whate ver may be concluded with regard toresistance, hom the te diotis deductions os reason, yet there is I knownot what turpitude and deformi ty in sonae actions, whicli at first blum the ws them to be victous; but they, not finding thenaseives struch withsuch a sensii ble and immediate horror at the thought of rebellion, cannotthin k it on a levet with other crimes against nature. To whicli Ι an Merithat it is true, there a re certa in natural antipathies implanted in the Qui, whicli are e ver the most lassing and insurmountable; but as custom is a
nualty infused into the mind, give it so deep a stain as is scarce to bedistinguis hed frona natural complexion. And as it doth hence solio , that to malie ali the in ard horrors of Qui passe sor infalli ble marks of sin, Here the way to establim error and superstition in the worid: so, onitie other hand, to suppose ali actions la fui, whicli are unattended withthose staris of nature, Would prove of the last dangerous consequence to
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virtve and morali ty. For these pertaining to us as men, we must not bedirected in respect of them by any emotions in Our blood and spiriis, but by the distates of sober and impartiat reason. And is there be any, who find they have a lese abhorretice of rebellion than os other villantes, ali that can be inserred stom it, is, that this part of their duty was notso much reflected on, or so early and frequently inculcated in to theirhearis, as it ought to have been . Since without question there areother men who have as thorough an aversion for that, as sor any
XXII. Again, it will probably be objected, that submission to go vern-ment disiers Dom morat duties, in that it is siounded in a contradi, whichupon the violation os iis conditions doth of course hecome void, and insuch case rebellion is lawful: it liath not there re the nature os a sin orcrime, whicli is in iiself absolutely unlawsul, and must be committed onno pretext whatseever. No , passing over ali enquiry and dispute con- cerning the first obscure rise of go vern ment, I observe iis heing undedon a contradi may be understood in a twosold sense, ei ther, first, that severat independent persoris finding the unisse rabie inconvenience of astate of an archy, Where e very one Wa8 governed by hi S O n will, consented and agreed together to pay an absolute submission, to the decrees of me certa in legislative; whicli, though semetimes they may bear hardon the subject, yet must surely prove ea si ex to be governed by, than the violent humours and uns eady opposite Wilis of a multitude os se vages. And in case we admit lach a compaei to have been the original f unda-
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tion os civit govern ment, it must even on that supposition he held sacredand inviolabie. XXIII. Or secondly, it is meant that subjects have contracted withtheir respective fovere igns or legislators, to pay, not an absolute, but con ditional and limited submission to their laws, that is, upon condition, and se far forth, as the observation of them smali contribute to the publicgood: reserving stili to thenaseives a right os super intending the laws, and judging whether they are sitied to promote the public good or no;
po ers, and changing the whole frame of go verninent by force: whichis a right that ali man kind, whether single persons or societies, have over those that are deputed by them. But in this sense a contrast cannot be admitted for the ground and meam re os civit obedience, exceptone of these two things he clearly shewn: either, sirst, that fuch a contradi is an express known part of the fundamental constitution os a nation, equalty allo ed and unquestioned by ali as the common law of thelaiad: or, secondly, is it be not express, that it is at least necessari ly implied in the very nature or notion os civit poli ty, whicli supposes it is athing manifes ly absurd, that a number of men should be obliged to live under an unlimited subjection to civit law, rather than continue wild and independent of each other. Eut to me it stems most evident, that ne i ther of those potnts will e ver be proved. XXIV. And illi they a re proved beyond ali contradiction, the doctrine bulli iapon them, ought to be rejected With detestation. Since tore present the higher po ers as deputies of the people, manifestly tends todiministi that awe and reverence, which ali good men mould have sortho laws and govertament of their country. And to speah of a conditioned, limited loyalty, and I know not what vague and undeterminedcontracis, is a most effectual means to loosen the bands of civit society,