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translations os the Commentaries, hich have eithe been pririte o published Christina, Queen of weden, compoSed Re exfons o Me Lisse an Actions Caesar, hich he oesno Seem to have gi ven to the worid. ouis Philippe ad ma madeo illustrate Caesar' Campaigns in aut Lastly the two Napoleons ad the Commentaries the object of thei Specia care Napoleon , a St. Helena, dictaleda Prsicis des uerres de C6sar to Comte Marchand, and his nephew, Napoleon III, applied ali the refources of his powe and of an acute intellecto the lucidatio of this single
But is the militar interest attachin to the Commentarie Historicallend to diminiSh a time oes on, it historica value oes not. ni ζη The Gallic Warma be regarde a therars chapter of modern history anxit is difficultato verrat the importance of a Work in hicli France, Germany, witzerland Belgium, and Britainali malae their gbut o the worid' stage, hereo the haVesinc played thei part with so much applause. In writing the Gallic War Caesar enjoyedine great advantage Caesar thelie is his own sole historian here else hali e ook or RV V
a important ar of whicli the ne authenti narrative is that the Galli eos the genera vlio conducte iti The eares parallel ob found is in the Anabasis of Xenophon That ork like Caesar's, has attaine to immortality, and larget on accountos the fame merit, that o simplicity. ut the parallel isno a Close one For though the expedition of the en Thousand is an interestin passage of history, since it revealed the weaknes of the Persia Empire, an potnte the wayto the conquest o Alexander, et in direct importanc iti by no means to e compared illi the conquest os Gaul. Ioreover, the expedition a no persona an peculia toXenophon, ho oine it a firSt ni as a volunteer, and
was neve the Sole or even the hie commander Even theauthenticit of the wor might plausibi be questioned, Since
Xenophon Heli. iii I, et has himself hosen to mistead
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us by attributin it to nother riter LaStly sor Some atteast os the evenis narrated Xenophon is no the sole originalauthority sor an account a give os the batile of Cunaxa
an os an incident relatin to Clearchus by Ctesias the Gree physicia os Artaxerxes Xen Anab i. 8 26 Plui.
Another partia parallel that might be adduce is the accounti, Josephus of the Jewish War, and speciali of the lege
of Jotapata, the delance of vhicli e conducte in perSon; but that id not as unchallenge in his ut time, as heshows by his acrimonious reserences to the rival historian, Justus os TiberiaS. This unique advantage possessed by Caesar has been sed by him illi an admirabie discretion It is dissiculi, in nycase, to rea a stor Without sympathigin With the ero. But in his particular case the stor is old illi suci an iros truthilness, and with suchis inning grace an modeSty, that our admiratio sor Caesar is a more enhancedthan f he had exhauste ali the refources of rhetori C, SCicero ould have done in his place in rumpetin his oWn
But hat a Caesar' advantage is urii sabilit in seehingi forma critica estimate of the truth of his narrative. ehave ardi an means of gettin bellin his statemenis oros ringin independent eviden eoo bear po them Themost etaile account that we have of the Gallic ar, therilia Caesar' own is containe in certain Chapter os Dio Cassius, books xxxviii xl ut then, hen id Dio Cassius live He rote in the eigia os Severus XXXiX. 5 ad sin.),
xxxviii. 3I-5o the campaig against the Helvetians and Arioristus; xxxix. I-5. the campaim against the Belgae O-53, the campatens against the Veneti and the Aquitanians the passage of the Rhine, and the rstinvasion finiain xl. I II, the secon invasioni Britain the destructionos Cotta an Sabinus, the delance of his cam by Quintus Cicero, and the Succes of Labienus against the Treviri; I- 3, the purguit of Ambiorixand the suppression of the great revolt in Gaul.
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an his birili is ut at bout 155 A. D. that i to ab , US t Ocenturies aster Caesar's sirs landiri in Britain. Plutarch's account of the Gallic ar Caesar 18 27), though Plutarch, briefer tha that o Dio Cassius, is perhaps more important.
Plutarch speah os himself Dei apud Delphos 385 Byasie ing
might asit have been corrected by a glance a Caesar OWn Mitings. In the main e is manifesti sollowin Caesar himself, ut there are ome potnis in hicli e seem to edrawing pon independent eviden e Thus he telis S emphati- catly that it a no Caesar in perSon, ut Labienus actingunde his orders, fio achieved the rsi succes in the Helvetian a b cuttingo pieces the Tigurini. e liould certaint neve have athere this sto the Commentaries i. a): ut the statemen is repeate in Wo fragments of
Appian Lib. v. De Reb. Gall. 3 and 5), and we cannotlighil se itinSide. Again, in the matter of the Usipetes an Tencteri Plutarch,
aster quotin the ather suspicious account give by Caesar in his Commentaries' of his negotiations illi thos uni ortunate barbarians, goes on to teli us, o the authorit os a loSt writer, that he the Senate a votin a supplication Cp. B. G. v. 38, 4 in honour of Caesar' victories, Cato propoSed that heshould e surrendere to the enem in tonement for the violatio of the truce. The writer quoted by Plutarch appears in hi texi asoti σιος He has been identisied illi the Tanusiu Geminus, hos Historia is quote by Suetonius J. C. 9 as ne of the authorities for Caesar' period. his Tanusius it has been though may be the Same a the amuSiUS, os hos Annales Seneca Epist. citi ad fin. expreSSe SOlo an opinion as tedious and ,orthleS production.
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6 CAESARS GALLIC VARPlutarch' statemen is echoed by Appian iv. 8, Eoo γ περὶ πρεσβειων an rein rced by Suetonius J. . a ), Wh saysthat the unScrupulous measures adopte by Caesar ad the Senate at ne time hin os sendin a commission to inquire into the state of Gaul, and that ome ent so sar a to volethat he hould e surrendere to the enemy. ut apari Domauthority the fac is intrinsicali probabie Caesar States unblushingi that he eige ambassadors and nowin What Cato as and what ere his relations illi Caesar, e might surmise illi confiden e that his ould be the sine hici Cato would adopt. There is et ne ther light indication o independent eviden e possessed by Plutarch. He ives usin delai relativeto the lege os Alesia hicli is no mentionedi Caesar, Saying that me Romans, ho ere guarding the countervallation, eresirs appri se of the succes of thei Countrymen against thereii evin sorce by earing the lamentations os the aut in Alesia, hen rom hei mountain-height the Sa the spolis of their countrymen ein carrie into the Roman camp. Plutarch also had accesso the writings DC Oppius, o homin Suetonius time the authorshi of the Alexandrine, African, and panisli ars as ascribed by ome Suet. J. C. 56ὶ Thewritings to hicli Plutarch alludes are distinc sto thosethat have been just mentioned, ut the hardi come under the categor of independent evidence, a Plutarch himself declares elsewhere Pomp. Io that the partialit of Oppius for Caesar a Such as to mali his statemenis require ob received illi caution hen the relate eitheroo Caesar'sstiend o Mes. Oppius as ne of those lio, like Matius and Balbus, ad fallen unde the persona magnetis os Caesar, and were true to thei laten in death as in lila. Oneos his book was ritie to prove that CaeSarion a notthe sonis Caesar a Cleopatra claimex Suet. . . sa).
Seutonius. Suetonius is a later riter than Plutarch. e speah of
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THE COMMENTARIES Ithe death os Nero, hich oo place in . D. 68. the Plutarchhe had read idely, ut he add nothin to ou knowledge
of the Gallic campaign. His assertio that Caesar recon-noitred the arbours of Britat in person elare landin his troops sint variance illi Caesar' o via account, and his stor os Caesar penetrating, in the disguis os a Gaul, into his camp
rejected. Velleius aterculus is much neare to Caesar' time, as e Velleius Wrote hi hiStor in A. D. 3o, ut e compresses liat he has P terCulus to sanabout Caesar in Gaul into a single Sectionis a chapter. Florus has give usin helchis Roman hiStor isto Romulus Florus.
to Augustus, in a spirite style, ut deforme by a turgi and bombasti rhetoric. His date is quite unknown excepi that hementions Trajan. In his account of the Gallic a he has
certaint made ome talement that are not based on Caesar,
the Roman galleys cp. B. G. iii. 3, ); that the attachos Indutiomarus a repulsed by Dolabella, and the head of that chiesiain rought bach into his camm cp. B. G. v. 58, ἶ -6);
that Caesar urgue the Caledonians into their oods, and capturedine of thei hings that the war astrought ora close by the surrender of Vercingetorix a Gergovial The work of Florus prosesses tot an abridgement of Livy. Livy. Os sar more value are the epitomes hicli ave come down tous of the los book of the great historian For aught, knowto the contrary the may have been composed by Liv himself. So sar a the go the entiret corroborat Caesar. Our revie the of the ources has no tende in an Wayri Ueracit ofimpugn Caesar veraci ty Mith respecto Labienus Caesar 'ς was illiin his right in no thini iniit necessar to mentionili nam os an ossicer fio ad meret executed a manceuvrewhicli ad been lanne by himself Wheneve Labienus is
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acting at a distance rom his Superior Caesar ahes care o givehim suli credit soriis achi evemenis, ache oes torali the ossicerswho acte unde him. In the matter of the Usipetes and Tencteri Caesar has no miS-Statexo concealed the facis. What he has done is to see to palliat his own conducti attributinga treacherous motive to his antagonisis of this e have noproos ut Caesar' bare assertion, and it appear eXtremelyimprobabie sto the facts a relate by himself. When e turn rom the actua histor o Caesar' campaignSto the ethnographica an geographica notices hicli tendiso much harmo his ritings, we n ourseives much ettersupplied illi extraneous insormation. The author neares to Caesar' own time is Diodorus Siculus. He is supposexto have rittera aster the ea A. D. 8, ut his life overlapped that o Caesar, S e Speak of havin been live
oni in part Seem to have toppe Shortis Caesar's Gallic War. We ma surmis that the work was interrupte by death, as he twice expreSses the intention to reati Caesar' invasionis
extant, and whicli deal maint With flands, he has est us an account of Britain and of iis trade in in clis. 22, 23ὶ Fortunatet lar us also e has thought it uitable to his designoothrow in an account of Gaul anxiis inhabitanis clis. 24-32). Strabo's inli is ut at bout B. c. 66 so that his life also overlapped that o Caesar Butae rote during the early years of the eigni Tiberius a is evident Dom many allusions mistreatis o geographyri by sar the mos valvabie or of the kind that has come down to us rom antiquity. The sirs iurchapter of the Murth book are devote to Transalpine Gaul;
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THE COMMENTANVS the fifth contains,liat he has to tellis about Britain and Ireland in the first two chapter of the severith bookae treat os Germany an iis inhabitantS. The value of Strabo is both direct an indirect Born himselfat Amasia in Pontus xii 3 4 39, p. 56I he had extende his
traveis estWardo Etruria, and outhwar to the horder of Ethiopia ii. p. 17). Butio an in thos days couldiope tose the whole ori sor himself, and the est geographer Washe who could mahe the est se of the materiai supplied imby thers. Jus a the severat enses ive thei repor of Certain figure, colour, Sige, meli, seel and aste, hile themind combines them into the notion Dan apple, o the intellecto me os earning-it is Strabo' own illustration emplo ingilie senses of individua observers had to iece ut a notion of the wori asin hole. Accordingi Strabo travelle in bootaeve more than in countries. In hi account of Transalpine Gaul e mahes se of Caesar, o Aristolle an Posidonius, of the historians Ephorus, Timaeus, Polybius, TimageneS, and Asinius Pollio, of the travellers Pythea an ArtemidoruS, notio mention quotations Domineschylus and Euripides of these, apar sto Caesar, the authorit upon hom he relie mos is Posidonius That philosopher ad imsel visite Gaul and studied the manners of the inhabitants. He die about B. c. I. Aster Strabo e have Pomponius Mela, ho CompoSed Mela.
bries but livet shetch in three book of the geograph of the worid asinown in his day. He appears in one passages iii. 6, D 9)t be referring to the triumphis Claudius ove Britain se Suet. Claud. 7 has an event hicli a jus about o take place. filiis be so it ould si the date os compositio as A. D. 44; ut his latest editor Sees reason to suppos that the allusion is atherto the antasti Deah o Caligula Suet. Calig. 47ὶ Pomponius Mela is mentioned by Plin among the authoritie so the three book of his great or Whicli deat with geography. From Plin himself A. D. 24-79 we gain veryatile insorma Pliny.tion His Naturalis Historia a publiShed about A. D. 77, Ialy
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encyclopaedio reatis are devote to a furve of the disserent countries of the globe, butae does no proses to give more hana bare si os namei Tacitus. For his drynes of the lde Pliny e re compensate in the ex generatio by the delightful ork of Tacitus, hose Germania and Agricola are o wellanown to justis theiraeingdwel on here. Ptolemy Ptolemy, hocis sal to have flourished in the reigmos Hadrian A. D. II -738), ut o have furvive Antoninus Pius, ho ted in A. D. 16 I, i intrinsicali of the ulmos importance, ut he has litti or no interest for the student of Caesar His or is more scientis in sorin tha that o any of his predeceSSorS, iving the latitude and longitude of the places mentioned; ut hereduce geographyrio it loWest terms, excludin ali that comes unde histor or anthropology. Appian Appian o Alexandria rote his reat or o the wars of the Roman about o years aster the Munding of the ity, A. D. I 6 Praef. ) His Murth book, hicli eat with the wars of the Roman with the auis, has uias ortunatet perished. se possessint an abstraci made by a caretes epitomiger, together With extracis sto Suidas an other SonrceS. Ammianus The account of Gaul give by so late a riter as Ammianustiti Marcellinus abOut o A. D. Would not much concern S, erei not so the ac that it is professedi based on Timagenes Am m. Marc. v. 9, 4, yssentiardi), hocis quote also by Strabo a an authorit on Gaul. In ne par of his descriptionos aut an iis inhabitants xv. 11, J - Ammianus closelysollows CaeSar. N State In non of thes authors do e sin a single statemen OsC,eg, Caesar'M Challenged. Wheneve te is mentiones it is illieballei gessi pro unx respect Tacitus' Germ. 48h expressi malis him Summus au Iorum courseo have to bear in in that the veneration hown or hi is no due entiret to his meriis
iii θ locorum nuda nomina et quanta dabitur brevitate ponentur.'
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THE COMMENTARIES Iras an author For no ooner a Caesar murdere than hewas made a God aut then even God weano cannot Scape Momus. ad these riter Mund ut that an os Caesar's Statemenis ere rong, the would have been preti sure toliave et hi right in spite of his divinity.
The only hisper os adverse criticism that reaches Uisrom an Adversequarte comes sto Caesar' own frien Asinius Pollio' hoi i 8 'charges him illi a antis accuracy, is notis veraci . ut thenu emus remember that Pollio as a rival author, holadiimself composed a histor of the Civit Wars MoreOver, the patronos Vergi and Horace a a peculiari exacting Critic. He rotea book in hichae censure Sallust for his archaismi Suet de Issust Gram Io) he was fond of ointing ut the fauit os style in Cicero Quint. xii. I, 423 an he was the amous discovereris the Patavinities in Liv Quint. i. 5, 46). Caesarca assor tot critici Zed in such good company ithout much damage to his reputation. e may fairi infer that thesestrictures of Pollio' relate ather o Caesar' account of the Civilthan of the Gallic ar, since Pollio hadio persona knowledge of the ne, ut played a prominent par in the ther, eing present vitii Caesar henae rossed the Rubicon, a Pharsalus an asterward in Africa Plut Caes. 32, 46, 2). ut thetrustworthines of Caesar' Civil a stand even es in needo confirmatio than that of the reatis With hich e have immediatet to do. For the evenis that are there recorde were
transacted in the sui daylight of the Roman worid instea of in the remote twdight o Gaul and Britain. In the alter case
Plut Caes. 67. Diodorus Siculus calis him in ne place v. I, Da Γαιος Κaισamo δια τὰ πραξεις πονομασθεις θεός, an in another V 25 Καισαρ ὁ κληθεὶς θεός to Strabo hecis alWays frankl ὁ θεος Καισαρ or Κάσαρ ὁ θεος, hii Tacitus calis him diviιs Iulius. Suet. J. C. 56. Pollio Asinius parum diligenter parumque integra
veritate compositos putat, quum CaeSar pleraque, et quae Per alios erant gesta, temere crediderit, et, quae per se, vel conSulto vel etiam memoria lapsus, perperam ediderit exiStimatque reScripturum et correcturum
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Caesar might have lied illi comparative impunity, ad hebeen o mindes in the orme he could not, and we inser that he id not since no ingle statemen in the Civit War hasbeen controverte by his countrymen the ni demurre thathas reache us l)eing this vague row of Pollio's, whicli sun Substantiate by delatis. There is ne poliat, however, hicli e must concede to urcritic namely that o questions os natura histor Caesar Showed himself os o confidin a disposition. Some os the east Withwhich he has eopte the Hercynia Forest B. G. vi. 25-8)had certaini no falle unde his own observation. ut a Charge like this is no special to Caesar, but common to the writers of antiquity, and telis illi tensold orce against thers. In those lay the world Was oung, and ither Nature a more erraticthen than no or her ourse adiso been o definitely Scertained. Within the ange of thei immediate experiene menlooked sor uniformi ty beyond that verything a poSSible. There is omething of the fame spirit est among ursetveS. Noone expect Mahalmas in heapside, ut e re illin toaccepi them in hibet.
our confidence in his Statemenis. He ad the veracit whicli Aristolle telis us is characteristic of the an o great oul. We a seel preti sure that the way of truth sor u lies in Squaring our theories illi Caesar' Statemenis, no in the
Why id Caesar cali his or Commentaries Z The ordis no one that quite carries it meaning on the Sursace,
especiali aster it has been vertaid illi associations foreignto it primary sense. It is employe both in the masculine an in the neuter gender. In the ne case e ma Supply volumen, in the other liber, as Aulus Gellius does us'.