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intrinsicalles, it is mos improbabie laat a maia os se vent, inould,
aster a lis os austerit, and Self-Control. enter tapon a Courseis grossand n natura sensuali ty an prolon his lis in spite os it to the age of nearly eventy- eight. While there is no positive viden cea vallabie so the refutatio of the Se chargeS, the a re, O e Ver. distincti no prove ' an inasmuch a the are of jus thea indiliat ancient malice ould inveni against an uia popular person livingi close et trement, it is ni sal togive Tiberius the bene fit of thedoubi in the matter. It remalias to offer Some explanation os the cause of Tacitus' uncompromis in hostili tyrio Tiberius. It Seem parti account ableb the ac that Tacitus politica sympathies ere illi the noble' opposition to the principat at iis inception he regarde the olddays os republican liberi y as representin a igher condition os politica lila, and could nota et rivi e in the Dunder of the empireas the destroyer os a constitutio that represente a more exalted ideat. Moreo ver into his te os Tiberius there probabi en tereda considerable amount of the traditiona ill-seel in enteria ined by theother nobiles against the ou se of the Claudii, hos political conducta ad osten run counter o nobi interest and whos inde pendence, in faci, a Characteri Zed by their peer a arrogance. The Tacitus no doub rea the times of Tiberius ver much in the light of his experience of Domitian ' rute, an saw, or lanci edite saw, prevalent unde Tiberius the abuses that reache theirheight unde Domitian a reign os terror o in to the uncti echediniquities of the informers and the Vec servilit of the Senate. Nor ad Tiberius the qualities hown by Trajan the em peror hos rule a so et Comed by Tacitus in contrast to at theoppression o Domitian Trajan a a great Conqueror, hoSearmies advance beyon the Danube and the EuphrateS, hereas Tiberius liran timidi bellin the fronti ers equeathe to hi m. Trajan' vas operations in engineering and bulldin were in Strongcontrast to the parsimon that heched Tiberius rom an such beneficent expenditure vi 43 23. An so Tiberius Won no credit with Tacitus for the ound though ess aggling, seatures of his administration, of hicli there is no doubt,-the preservatio ospeace and the equitable regulatio of the provinces This si de of Tiberius' govern ment must not be orgo iten. Crueli an extortion
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in the provinces ere checkex liberalit was hown to fore ignsubjecis hen in difficulty as in the case of the ounties gi ven to the cities of Asia when ruine di earth quakes ii 47), and the gratitude os provincials atteste by temples an monument in foreigncountries, shouldie et against the Complaints of nobi es that liberi y, which to them meant the licencerio tunder ha been destroyed. It is no the purpose of this esSanto represent Tiberius as ani dea monarcha at his est, he id not rise bove the leve os asound administrator his reigesis barre of great improvement orextensions of the imperiat system ut it is de si rabie to give ome indicationis the potnis here Tacitus prejudice lea to mis representation. Absolute powerrio osten proves a burde beyon thepo ver of human nature to suppori, and the word of Arruntius vi 483 that Tiberius characteri ad brohen down unde the traino it offer a vie more reasonabi tha that suggeste by Tacitus. Tiberius a notistron in the qualities of courageous independen eo qui Ch and resolute decision as age eahene him, his mother' sstrong illis longe exerci sed pon him iis influen eooward shumane and moderate Courses the came the hoc of the sensethat the minister hom he had ruste had prove trea herous ohim est solate an suspici ous, e lost his ri even on theroutine of administration, an came to See at ver turn ne mi e Swho musti struch down to malae lis sala foraim.
THE CHARACTER AND GOVERN MENT FCLAUDIUS
We havem complete account of Claudius lis in Tacitus, hose narrative is os untii e come to the closin years of Claudius rei gn whenie is represented asiavin sun into a state os dotage,
without illis his own absent-m inde an callous to the pitch os imbecili ty, and entiret dominate by his is an his Deedmen
mini SterS. From the writers however, nough materiai an bedra n to construct a fati l complete record of his life and character.
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ille thai in insan and childhood Claudius suffered a successionis linesses, hi licio intensi fie his natura desecis that he was hept in the background and regarde With aversion an contempte vel by his mollier. Whil his isted rother Germanicus as rapidi ad vance t hono ur an ossice, Claudius rema ined in obscurit, . Unde Augustu si received nothingit e than an augur-shi p. and unde Tiberius meret thes consularia ornamenta, in spite os his destre so the ac tua consul ship. Frona early years hori ever, hedisplayed a passion o literar, an historica studies long lis of his composition is i ven by Suetonius, an in his et he was noto ithout abili ty. his is achnowledged by Augustus in aletter o Livia hicli is quo ted by Suetonius, ho lso telis iis of Augustus onderintho One ho conversed soladi could decla imso eli. O also Tacitus says of him, nec in Claudio quoties meditata dissereret elegantiam requireres' xiii 3,6). His intellectualpursu iis, howe ver domo appen to have hepta in Dona indulgenco in CoarSe leas ures, and Suetonius states that he pent his ei furewith lox companions in drinhing gambling, an debaucheta. Hema be compare to ames I of England the wisest Mol in Christendona, suli os erudition, ut lachin force of Character and practical abili ty unga in ly, staminering an undigni fied. Unde Gaius Claudius, no in iddie life was promote tolligiter rank, hecomin a senator instea of hein meret an equestri an, an receiving the Consul ship. ut e suffere insulis and was expose to anger he wa reprimande sor his cis asconsul and was asked his sententia in the Senate ast os ali the consulares' a Cour he wa the ut os practical olies inflictedupon in by Gaius an hi Courtiel S, an once, hen Sent on deputation to Gaius in Gaul, he came ea los in his life . It is qui te possibi that during thi perio he manliave purpOSelyexaggerate his eccentricities an submitte to the em peror's insulis, findita it ases to e despi sed, hil secreti look in sor-war to the time os his own accession It was o lihely that Gaius tyranny ouldie en dure forinny great tengili os time, and by his connexion illi the imperiat ous Claudius a the most natura successor An it was a this Stage that he married aleria Messalina a womanis hi glier rank than et ther of his previous ives, Plautia Vrgulanilla and Aelia Paetina sor he was a great-grand-
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laughteris Octavia, the sisteris Augustus, and this alli ance musthave improve his prospects of succession In deed his Sud denelevation to the principate may et haVe been due to Some pre- Concerte plan ather than the sud dental f-humorous suggestion of
the oldiers who Mundi ima id in in the palaemon the da os Gaius
audius administration e speciali that sali in the early par of his rei g that manifest creditabie state smanship et ther in himself or in the advisers hom he had the good senseri solio K. Gaius h ad est the empire in a state os disorgani gatio an Confusion. His maniacat extravagance had deplete the reastir an dbrought the populace into the clange of famine, hile his oppressionhad alienate the nobilit an brought the principat into distavour With the uppe classes. Abroad, aut ad been illaged the German tribes provolae to hostili ty the Jews in Palestine ere onthe verge of rebellion, an in ther region S, a Mauretania, Commagene an Parthia, disturbance had heen caused by Gaius' Caprici ous interserence illi, o depositionis, nati V TulerS. The new administration proceede to remed thes Condition S, an Showe a considerable measure flabilit in dealing illi thetask. The nances ere reorgani ged the lavisti expenditur ofGatu on hows and largesses a discontinued, and many of theraxes imposed in the last rei gn could in consequence e remit ted.
At this period wein the terna fiscus ' nowirs definitet appliedio the sun into hicli the revenues rom the imperiat provinceswent, and Dom hichahe expenses of thei administration ere mei. differen ei doubta ad previously been drawn belween this fundand the inconae stom the emperos persona estates in different paris of the empire, but both ad been included unde the term res suae οὐ res familiaris. The riscus Caesaris no hecam a separate an important depariment of the imperiat administration, unde thecharge of the libertus a rationibus. This officiat, in origi one of the servile lassis the emperor's household, rose unde Claudius to increased digni ty, hich was enhance by the prohibitio of the use of this name for the Deedman holding the corresponding functions in annother Roman household Pallas, thes libertus a rationibus under Claudius, even received the insignia of the praetorship. thers also
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os the em peror' fina iacia agent ob taliae increased dignit an dpo vers his Procurator Nere to have magisteriai jurisdiction in sui is affect in the fiscus, and the emperor' Procurat Ors, ather hanquae St Ors too the Super intenderace of the corn-Ships at Ostia and the anagement of the em peros doma inland in Cisalpine Caul
In dealin with the question that calle sor et ilement abroad, Claudius meas ures, rien Stated, e re a solio s. Nationalseel in in Judaea a conciliate by the withdrawal of the insignia o Roman ut stoin the country and by the appotniment of anative prince, Agrippa, as in ove ali the dominions hicli his grandiather, Herod the Great, ad hel unde Augustus. In Armenia, Mithridates, originali appotnted in by Tiberius,
but summone to Rome an imprisone by Gaius X 8, I , WaS restore t his ingdom, here e maintaine his authorit an dreas Serte Armenia' independenc against Parthia. So also, Antiochus, ahenorona Commagene by Gaius, as rei nStaledixi S , I). Mauretania, hicii ad been convulsed by a risingsor nationa independen ce o vin to Gaius seigure an executionoscit hing, Ptolemaeus, a subjugaled by Suetonius Paulinu and Hosidius et in I A. D. an reduce to tW proVince S, under procurator who ere in charge of considerable militar force. In 6 A. D. e find the ingdona o Thrace brought illi in the Roman provincia System, o the death o Rhoemetalces thea ingin Stitute by Gaius For many years the counita ad been est unde native uter actin unde Roman protection, ut the hadno Succeede in maintaining thei aut horit satisfactori ly, and
no Thrace was ut unde a procurator, illi , O trOOPS,
Subject to the igher aut horit of the legatus o Moesia About the Same time, the province of Macedonia and Achaia, hic Since IS A. D. ad been unde the charge of the legatus of Moesia, erere Store to Senatoria control.
In Gaul, Druidis in a suppressed, Since it a a poSSibleSOurce O nationat insurrection, ut the Romani ete inhabitanis received an privileges, and their counita a regarde With specia favo u by Claudius a be in his birili place. In Germany, the Salat of the fronti e was secured by expedition against the Chatti and the Chauci, and in ne os the expedition again St the
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former, the last os the three agi es ahenoro in Varus in o. D. Wa recoVered, as et a Some Captive Survi ving rom his arm ;an in dealin with the Chauci great succes attende the perationso Corbulo xi 18-2o). The Roman garrisonS ere, hoWe Uer,drawn to the Gallic si de of the Rhine, an attempis to annex the country to the eas of the river ere forbidden, in accordance with the precept of Augustus, though ome of the German tribesnearest the Rhine achnowledged the fugeratnt of Rome, and aratri po territor on the right an was hept clear o Germans, and
reserve so the use of the Roma troop. xiii 34, 2). Claudius chie militar exploit, the invasioni Britat an reductioni a Considerable par of it into a province, is describe in Separate Chapter p. lxj. An important Datur os Claudius rei gn is the Mundation os
Roman colonies in the provinces, of Whicli the mos famous ere
Colonia Agrippinensis Cologne an Camulodunum Colchester :in Noricum, too, sive municipia lare mentione by the et derili nya owing thei status to the favour o Claudius Seneca, in his Satire o Claudius, taunis him it the indiscriminate estowalo Roma Citigen Shi upon provinciais, ut there is no positive evidenc that this a reali done o any large Cale. SeneCAprobabi exaggerates the effect o Claudius admission os eminent Gaul to the Senate an magistracies in Rome Thi concesSion, expresse in the orationi Claudius, of whicli a fragmen has been Mund in an inscription a Lyons, and the istis hic Seem tobe condense in Tacitus repor in X 24, as a natural developmentos the polic pursue toward the lites of Gaul by both Augustus an Tiberius, ho bylonouring and rusting them aifar a possibie had ought to attach them firmi to their connexion illi Rome. These clites atre ad possesse the Roman Citigenship and the status of equites' the no received the right of the broadstripe, entilling them to a seat in the Senate an to stan fortite Roman magistracies This is and libera measure Wasvlewed illi ealous and alari by the Roman obles, and it asto such seeling that Seneca appeale in the reserenoe whicli hemade in his satire t Claudius indulgence toward the provinciat S. A generat review, the resore, o Claudius administration shows it tocontain many savourabie eatures Eut it ouldae a misi aheno lose
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sight os the impersection in his system o goverimen or sine
abuses to hich his desect os character ave ri Se There a S, asinister aspect in ille et hoc os hi elevation to the position os princeps he was a uter imposed pon the state by the choiceos the oldier and thi militar praerogativa, to hic holi eratification os the Senate a me second was re arde with lavis host to the tro ops Lyra simila procedure Agrippina, at Claudius 'death, as nable to et her Son on the throne in spite os Britannicus' et ter right the precedent ad been et sor hali later times prove S terribi an abu Se the acquirement of the imperia throne by purchas froin the legions. The intention professed by Claudiu S, to restore the constitutionas it ad been unde Augustus, hen overtament a Shared belween the Senate and the princeps, a not actuali reali red, and was perhaps ori in to the Conditions os the time o practi- Cable. Eo the past ten ears through the closin pari os Tiberius reigi and the rule o Gaius, the Senate ad been oppresse an intimidated it a nox reduce in number an iis energies ere impatred, o that it a no capable of resum inga est eclive gras os public administration. e do not ence- forward n the Senate malitia provision or current emergencie Sor ne Spheres of administration ather tha this, the emperor selecis ne minister directi respons ibi to im self, Dona among the equites o the imperia Deedmen, an his procuratores arefound in Charge of ne depariment at home, an erio increased poWer an independen e throughout the empire. Such a Systemmight have vorked satisfactorii enough unde a uter os Strongcharacter an practical abili ty. ut Claudius a lachin in thesequalities. In his early lis he had ad n suci administrative training as ad fallen to Augustus an Tiberius; ill iddie life
his occupations, at est, ad been hos of the reclus and student. No was his earn in reor lightly like a flower, butit ad hi in diffuse an pedantic unable to se facts in thei true prOPOrtion, prone to ive ambi in an far-setched ea sons sorhi opinion S, an to malae much of ancisu resornas, suci a theintroduction o ne letters o the revivat os ancient method os
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bus iness. It is true that ome of his decision were Shre d, and Some of the principies of a whicli e nunciate were aster-ward quote wit approva by juristic riters, ut attemptingio dea personalty ithoo great a number of Cases, he wa osten presente with an accumulation fraus iness, hich e attemptedio meeta cuti in stior the fui investigationis cases an mahingliasty an Caprici ous decisions. Such method gave to those
who ould catch his ea an opportunit of gettin judgement in their own avour xi , I) Claudius as eas ity Wayed by thos earound him, and the institute a regula tramc ith the parties in the fuit heard by him. A great dea of this judicial orkwas eat with by the emperor in private, and there a noappea hom hi judgement it ecame, therelare, one of the OSt popular acts of Claudius successor to promise the discontinuance
of this abuse of justice xiii 4, 2).
His vanit an blindnes to realities are also Seen in his land-nes for takin militar honours ithou havin achi eved an actualmilitar exploiis. Not oni di he celebrate a triumph for the Conquest o Britain though he was ni present in the Counita sorsiXteen days, ut he accepte the ille of imperator' twenty-Seventimes, sor victorie many of whicli cannotio besidenti fied at ali and showere triumpha distinctions roadcast pon his subordinates for holi insuffcient reasoni X 2O, ). The the fac that the main departinent of administration, Comprising mos of the uties that in a modern state ould beassigne to a bod o civit servant unde State Control, ere in theliandsos Deedmen ho ere simply the emperor' own domesticossiciat S gave opportunities for intrigue an corruption ithin thepalace. The Deed me began to exercise contro ove everything: candidates for ossice applied to them, and aid thei price forrecommendation to the princeps misgovernmen in the provincesmight g on unchecked i the ovemors could get the Deedmen
an contract for public orks gave the directin Deedmen otherfruitsul opportunities for peculation xii 373. The lavarice of the Claudia times ' H. v I 2, 3 hecam a byWord. But the wors abuses of Claudius reignoros fro his timidi ty, coupled illi the possession os absolute power It was eas for
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his constants by v orking on hi sors, o procure the destructionos hose hos wealth excite theiraree o whom the wis hed tore move so their end s. A Conspirac again St the em peror' sit se, detecte in the second ea os his rei gn was et by wide spread Xecutions directe at thei pleastire by the secedine and Messalina and the alter in particular as Ver ready to compas the dea th of tho se ho disdat ne her ad vances o crossedlier ath in an way. The early Chapter of the eleventh book present a Case typica probabi of many thers, in hi Ch. to gratis her ealous and Satissyler cupidi ty, ita lives were sacrificed, the em peror a subdiae to her ill against his own inclinations, an men of the ighest ranii combine to contrive Charges tocoerce the em peror's ud gement.
In recording the fina event in Messalina' career of unbridled profligacy the bigam ous arriage illi Silius, Dona hicli heriwn destructio resulted Tacitus assures us that he has adde nothingto the accounts of the aut horities hom e followed xi 27 . The tale seem incredibi incleed, ut there are difficulties ardi tessgreat in the variant mentione by Suetonius, ut rejected by him, to the effect that Claudius as a consent in partyrio Messalina' sgoin through the forino marriage illi Silius, in orde that theil effect os an omen portende to the hvsband of Messalina 'might be averte Do himself. his versio leavescit unexpia inedho Narcissus h ad the power o turn the em peror' fear toward sthe politica danger of the ne marriage almos immediatel asterhe had heen induce by his superstitious ears to congento it,
and whether the eminent an contemporar aut horities homTacitus sol lowed ere ignorant of o suppressed, o important aseatur in the tor a the emperor' Cogni gance of the marri age.
In the closin perio o Claudius rei gn, after the death os Messalina the em peror is described by Tacitus as entiret dominate byter successor Agrippina. he had a Stron consederate in the Deedma Pallas, and won a position o even greater influencethan that hel by Livia in the time of Augustus. She obtained, as out war mark of her ascendancy the ille Augusta, an aseat illi the em perori great public occasions xii 37, D 36, Sin; sh amas Sed great wealth, procure the command of the praetorians for her o wn nominee xii 42), and nable her Son by a
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Pre Victus arringe to ecome the supplanter os Claudius ownchild Britannicus There as a part in the Senate opposed toller ascis uti inessed by the attach on her arti Sans, nsuccesssul
in the a se os Vitellius xii a), ut successsu in another, that os Tarquitius Priscus xii 59 an in the Deedma Narcissus helia a deadi enem y who finali organiete an intrigue sor herdestructio and the restoration Os Britannicus to the prospect ossuccession But he hadiso secure her positio that he was ableto prevent his intrigue stom Comin to effect sh hastene theem peror' death, procure her Son' accession, and SOon asterward scompelle Narci Ssus to commit sulcide. It wil be notice that the est seatures of Claudius administration re hown in the early par of his reign. Then, it ould Seem, his power were at their est, and the mini Sters ho cooperate with him i med a producin a good impressio byefficient administration. Nei ther an the sulfome eulon nor thescath in denunciation of Seneca be accepted asinording the true portrait o Claudius. The satire has undoubtecli much influencedili accounts of subsequent historians, ut hen alio ance has been made so the satiri si s extravagance, there remain a sufficienc os concrete facts to render Such an account as e have ro Tacitus Credibi enough. There are acts of sensetes extravagance xii 36ὶ . the neglecto atten to the standin nee o provisioning the cityi xii 43), Hilure to contro misgoverninent in the provinces xii 43nn gros abus os justice Xi I-3 . Such are the eviis that natur-ntly aris unde an absolute uter hos Character is in eca :that os Claudius, e ma conclude, ad rohen down illi in ala years aster his succession, a the outine os administrationwearie hi in and un restra ine Sensuali ty exhausted his OKers.
The Consolatio ad Polybium, writtent Seneca besore his recal homexile. The apocolocyntosis, 'a satire Writ ten against Claudius, aster his eath,