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spen in innution Though hel ne ali that was goin On, V says Niebutir, te id not suffer imself to e verpo vered by t. There is no the perio in his lis in hicli e ShOws uel in iellectual aetivit as during that summer of the greatest convulSion sos the Republie.' Hemo Only ought diversion an relie in the Study of hilosophy, ut e Strove o mali himself stillis bene- saetor to thersi his productions in that depariment of learning. It was in these severisii intervals V of the prin and Summer that he had composed the De Divinatione, the De sto the Cinto and the Laelitus, the De Gloria and the Topica besid0swritin an immense number o letters And when in the autumnhe was again compellexto' at leisure, he applied himselfestinueto the compositionis thes books, De mei . illi referetice tollis motives and aim in ritiniit, his omnGangvage in his Wor is spp. 60, 61, 3) When ali poweroad been usurped by Oue ara, uti there rea nocion ster an opportuni bor ouu8e or influencein politici, ne ither abando ned mysely to ries nor o degradi
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'Ρ- m countrymen, by writ in 1 on hos sub eras it inhichthev ere not et acquainted but hic Mere most orthy of theirhuowle e. It is certaint an interestin coincidenee, that fide bysido it the compositio of the masterpiece of his orato , o fullo the passionis that revolutionar time, he hould have rought Out, a the last of that series of says hiel Gibbon has styled alibrar of eason an eloquence, o dispassionale and Oundisi reatis o morat uties, the est manua os et hius,' a For-syth asseris, ,hicli has been equeathed in us by euthen antiquity. III. There a a special reason, hoWever, O the preparation Ofthis, hic hadiso existe in the case of Cicero' Other OrkS.It was the destre to a id in the instruction an training of his onlyson, MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, O WhOm the work M. Marcus a bor the Same ear illi Horaee B. Q 05. It was also the ear of his ather' praetorsitis, in hieli he had rono inced the Pro Lege Manilia, the sirst of his speeches Dona theΓ At ι . The early educatio of the sonoas directed illi theut most ains and illi his studies at home mere combine thead vantage of Oreignorave an residence He was his ather's companion in his toti to Athens, Rhodes, and the East in B. C. 5i, and the nexi ear, during is overnorshi o Cilicia, hieli asso remarhable at that a forcit integri ty, justice, economy and humani ty. Returning to Italy, he assume the toga Dirilis, Marcii. R. C. 49 oon after Reeompanie his ather in his light to Greeee ut the ovibrea of the civit War, and was ut in commam iis a Squadron O cavat a Pompey. In the campaigia hieli endo lxvith the batile of Pharsalia Au st B. C. 483, he On the ranseo his leade for his proficione in militur laeties, and Or his en durance of hard ships. Se p. 75, line 14 et seqq. During the year 46 B. , he fille the office of Aedile at Arpinum, ani thenex Spring though strongi destrous of j in in Caesar in his Spanisli campato against the Pompeians, he a Persu:illi ii ii his atheruo gorio Athen to complete his edueation. O his train iii 2 in rhetori his ather ad contributed a se monilis besere, bywrit in for his specia benefit the De Durtitio rei, torio Diomto' ' the mos purei scientis os ali his orlis in that branch V: md emo providei liberali sor his son' expenses hil underili tuitioni Cratippus the Peripatetic. Marcus. Who a at thenge of tWenty, after a time fel into extra
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but through the appealsis his ather an Atticus, he resorni ed, and in a letter of this year B C. 44 expresse dee regre fortis Wrong-doing, and promised reneWed devotion to study. The stories of his subsequent life hoWever, though the a re belleve to egreatly exaggerat , ho that his reform as ut partia and temporary of his merit as a soldier here is abundant evidenue. Leavinitiis studies abolit the lose of this eur so the rem Brutus, e proved a brave and abie mee in the Muste ninneampadii, hiel en led illi the extitietion of the Republiean part a Philippi, in B. C. 42. II then joine Sext. Pompe in
Fiei ly, and n his reconciliati01 with the Triumviri tu . C. 39,took advantage of the aut os amnesty returne to Ome, an reniesne there in retirement. Calle to the eo usuishil a colleague illi Octavian in B. C. 30 the dispateli unti iuncin the capture fAntony's fleet Was ad dressedo him in iis meiat ea paelin auditius, Says Plutarch the divine justice reserve the Ompletionos Antony's punishment for the ous os Cicero. V Xeshingsurther is know of him excepi his ΡΡOinimen to the OVernor-shimo Asiam Syria Oon aster. IV. With his praetieal aim Cicero Juys side the formis a dia-l0gue, hieli he had employed in osti bis ther realises, and ΡreSenis his Om VieWs, no in a scientisic hape, ut Dee as uehas possibi Dom the techniealities of the Seli OOlS, an in a popular style ad apte to the comprehensionis sueti outhful reader ustiis son. ut his methodis treatin the subject di no impJyan undervaluing of the theoretica principies hiel must sorinthe oundatio an framemor o an system of thios Thoughth tW aremo formali connected an earlier reatis had prepared the way for just suin a discussion as that contained in the De molis. In chapter iii. in connection illi his statement of the subjeet, heremarks that one of the two inquiries about diit pertain adsuem bonorum, i. e. the streatra good, to hie ad man's destres, thoughis, and actions ought tot directed. his he had atready ma de thetheme of the De Finibus Bonoruni et Malorum, a Wor in veBOOks, Writte in B. C. 45, and the most elaborate an profound of ali his philosophica essays. In the opinioni a recent Englisti editor it exhibit perhaps the latres pietur of the degree fruorat truth man is capa Iem alia ining ithou Christianity. VΤhe ther inquir ab ut uty, Cicero proceed to Sa has essereno to the properaules O the regulationis conduci. Ilisse do
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indeed have a l0se connection illi the theoretica truth di, eussed in the De Fininu/; et they aro to e reate os in thepresent Work in thei application to real lise. V. For a correet underStan lingis the sentimenta here presented, it musti borne in min that Cicero a no an adherent of any one secti philosophers Xelusively but an eclecti in his iews, and an expOunde or interpreter of sue doctrines of the severat selio is asine belleved toto the mos probabie, and of the reatest praetica value. Mis creed, V says Grant, Ethies of Aristolle, I. 2I9,h Mas a learnexand sensibi eclecticism, a quali siet Stoicism, with a use of the Academi arguments an an apprOae in Omethings to the Peripateti VieWs. V or the present purpOSe, thesoli Wing statement of his opinions illa sussicient: 1. In speculative philo8ophy, he adopte the vieWs Os the NewAcademnas expoundedi his eacher Philo os Larissa. In particular, he agree With his schoo in bellevin that truth could noti attained with certainty, and that Only What,us most probabie could e reached. In the Tusculai Disputations I. ), his langvageris Probabiliti coniectur 3equenδ. Ultra enim quo prin estur uti in ut veri simili videam non ubeo. For his state-ments On his Oint in the present Work se P. 62, lines 9 33, and p. 98, Iines 10 et 8eqq. 2. In ethic8 Cicero referred, in the in in the doctrines of the Stoics. In the introduction to this or I p. 9, line 25-29ὶ heunnounces it tot his intention to solio chien this seet in thodiscussionis mora duties, et notis an interpreter it is his pur-Ρ seu dra Dom their Ounta in us much and in Such a Way asstiali sui his own udgment. Se also p. 98, line I et eqq. Thus h agrestit, illi them in belleving that the oni properindi humauexistene Was o live in harmony illi nature, O right reason,
il, ut haleve is expedient is virtuous, and nothiniis expedient that is no virtuous p. 95, line 2 p. 98, line 63. He also adopted thei division of duties into medis and perfecta. Se P. 10, line , and p. 96, linea, and noteS.)3. et veen the Stoic doctrine, that externa good os ver Liudis somethin morali indifferent und worthles sthough there is adistinctio amon externa goods, an Some tua be preserable others), and that of the Peripatetics, who attribu ted a certain value
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DD OFFICII R. 4 lina itsol in externa good though it eigh as noth in against viri ue), Cicero avered, and consesse that at one time the toto, at another the Peripatetic vie seeuae t him tot mos illi thetruth. See p. 95, line 10 P. 102, lines 1- and 3 39, and notes. He also rejecte the Stoic dogma that a man must be hollyvirtuo ir nolint ali and that ali good acta re equalty good P. t 6, line 6 p. 71 Iine 213. Ritter' exposition o Cicero' ethica viems Hist o Phil. iv. i50 is in pari as sollows:
An attentive examinatio of the mode in hic Cicero en-deavors to combine the Stoicat illi the Peripatetic theor of morais, ill convince us that he had forme on these subjeet abeeulia vi eW, hicli originate no so uel in an scientific audrigorous connectionis ideas, as in the natura an individuuleharaeteristies of the an These revenis hi froni adheringentirely eithe to the Peripateticis to the Stoica notion of good, and ted him insensibi to formi different idea Domisither of the proper end os human exertion. his ill e distinetly manifestin the genera ideas under hie he conceived ad morali . fili Gree philosophers ad asserte that the beautim alone isgood, ieero, o the contrary, influeneed by the phraseolog of his native longue maintain that he honorabie alone is good, and hold that his own proposition is identieal With that of the Greelis. This is his sua language sor here e liould spea o moralgood, he speak of the honorabie, an simply hoWs that by the term honorable nothiniis to e understo diui What is trul deseruingis pratse even though itie not pratSed in a Word, virtve. Viriue is to his mini pre-eminenti distinguished Dom everythingelse by the splendor of iis orth. I he Wishes o ho ho manis impelle by nature t pursu mora good, he appeal to theemulation displayed by the oung thei competition illi their felloWisor pre-eminence, an to the labor an pain the Willinglyundergo for the s k of pralae. o the honorabie, he opp0Ses thebase, as the evil Whie ali me ought to void. True honor hemalae tot equivalent With virtve he distinguishecit, it is truse, sto Hory but at the fame time aeknowledges that it has a resemblance to it On his aecount he considera the resemblaneebetWeen the good and the eoomin to e so clos as in justi syhim in placing the term fidei fide as equivalent. A differeneema perhaps e ound e,een them; ut it is sueti asinardi to
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ad mitis belli expresse in ord s. The beeominiis eve in elo'enitendane On the good, and is evinee prine ipali in the deserendo hieli, in allisur actions, e lio K O ard Ghers, diligenti seekin to obtain their good opinion, and to voti Whateve ina give them offence Thus oes the mora theor of Cieero Strive aster the approbationi men. In deest the ver notionis thei omingappropriatet expresses this tendene Of his morat precepis. VI. O this electi creed Cicero as incline notini by temperament, ut also b his education unde representatives O Severat of the selio is, articulari Philo of the Ne Academ y, and Posidonius, the mos learne of the inius, hos lectures he hadattende a Rhodes; aud later, b his stud of the productions of these schoOlf, especialty the work of the Stoic Panaetius os Rhodes who ha been the teucher of Posidonius. PANAETIUS Was bor early in the secon centur B Q, and Wasa ut it o Crates of Pergamus, an afterward of the Stoies Diogenes of Babylon, an Antipater of Tarsus, at Athens Heaina self beeam aueaeheri philosoph in the Same city, and Wa ille head of the Stoi seli Gol there the lalter partis his life The e X-ae time os his deati, is unknown but it a Dea the lose of the SeeOn century, and thiri years after the publicationis his chios Work Ρ. 94, lines 24 and 25). Among his i iis ut Athens, erem an Roman jurisis, an others in politica life amon them Laeliii an Scipio Africanus Minor p. 36, line 2 et seqq.), Wh be- eam his Diends, and the lalter of whou he aeuom panie oti hi μsamous embam to the allie Lings in Asia Minor ani Misi in 144 B. C. It was through him hiest that Stoicism astres rei'. ommende to the Romans and egan to have an Get upon illeseientis formis thei jurisprudenue. His influenee Pon them Was larget due o his Deser methodi discussion and his popular style, his it an libera spirit, his tendene to electicism, and the raetieat almis his ritings Ritte remarks that te held Plato in special esteem; and yet constanti quoted With deserenee
ii V, Whichespectat lycommendeditselfio Cicero, beeauseit dis ei se, lihe practical fide of moralit in a style intelligibi in ordinar ni it p. 1 liues 21-23). The lalter has aecordingly, adopted iis generalΡlan an iis sentiments in the main in the De Osse iis, and of this he mahes due achnowledgmeut CL ais Esiast ad Att. xvi. 11.
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VII. he redige aegre o Cieero' indebi edites to anaetiu qtarther tha this it ma not e possibi absolutet to determino. Thata has notisive a mere translationi thR author Or an adaptation ita inodifieations to the Roman publie,' res omeerities have maintained Seem evident froni the folio vin considerations 1st. The manne in hiel the De me iis is allud od o by Aulus Gellius xiii 28 Quos Panaetii libros M. Tulliu in V nocum ludio claeimoque opere aemulatu est auxili faet that he quotes a passage DOm the Orco Panaetius hiel, is no found in that o Cicero. d. The statements of Cicero himSelf, e. g. p. 80 lines et seqq. me ipse Panoetius quem multum in his libris secuti sum, NON INTERPRETATUS ; audis. 94, lines 11-13. d. The saetthat certain important aris of the discussion a re noWD to eoriginal Willi Cicero, e g the definitionis metum, hieli Panaetius had nOt iveti se p. 9 liues 3 et seqq. in the addition o tWotopies to the threesold divisionis the subjeet made by PanaetiuA See . 10 lines 16 39; . 56, line 29 p. 90 line 29); and the entire discussion os the las division of the subjeet Oeeupying the wholem Book III. hieli Panaetius ad not reate at all. See
this realise, in puplicis referre to the following
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INTRODUCTION h. I. III. i. h. I. Pro e. Addressu his son, commending the stud os both Latin and Gree in orator an philosophy, and of his ownworks in both deparimenta. 2. h. II. Stutement of the sub eo an os the insons sor iis
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ih Ch. XXI. in ille performane os dissi euli an Mange us .ions O the Publi good as et in ei vi as in military
a. h. XXIV. Duties required by it a in War b Ch. XXV. in statesmanship ei Ch. XXVI. I p. 37 l. 4, in private lila. D. Ch. XXVII. XLII. Temperantia et Decorum.1. Ita natur anxiis Wo divisions. 2. h. XXVIII. p. 39, t. 27. The ut required by t. a. Ch. XXIX., p. 40 I. 26, in generat, a consormityri Ihedietates O nature aseertaine by stud of 1 the common natureis man I 2 Ch. XXX., P. I l. 36, One's Wia individual haraeter 3 Ch. XXXII. his ei dition rank ossiee Ch. XXXIV. his age. b. h. XXXV . . ropriet in ord an aetions attained by I modest Ch. XXXVI. dignit o demeanor; 3 Ch. XXXVII. eultureos thelowersis conversatio an Orator 4 Ch. XXXIX., Deedom rom ostentation and extra vaganee; 5 Ch. XL. . method se onablenes and sultabienes of aetions.
II. h. XLIII. XLV. HONESTORUM COMPARATI
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on thei Iove, thei considendo thei admiration si, Ch. XI., p. 72, t. 32, an is aequi red by justice, Ch. ΙΙΙ. by Warlike deeds by morat an intellectual Worth, Ch. XIV. by eloquenle. B. h. V. XXIV. benescenoe. 1 The two modes of exercisiniit contrasted. 2 Ch. V l. Pecuniar beneficence: a a distinguished frona prodigali tyan niggardliness; b as exercise aecordin to certain ul P . 3 Ch. XIX. Personat services a to individuals sueti as legat ad vice an plead in at the bar), proportionedo thei merit ib Ch. XXI. to the State, involving the diseharge of at the
V. h. II. XXXIII. HONESTI ET UTILIS CONTENTIO
b Ch. IV., p. 7, l. 35. Crit i iiij sor deei ling the dotibi: proved correet by the lae I Ch. U. that violation ibis littend to the dissolution os human inelesy; 2 h. VI. that the interest of eaeli individuallare identi l With thos os inowhole communi ty.
1. h. VIII. -XI. eo trideria With reserene to virtve in generat a The violationis right incompati hie illi expediene v. b. h. X. The rea expedieneno an aetion no determine ab iis immediate consequencos, no by the et that it saccordant illi friendshilino in interest os in State.